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A  Latin  Keader.     With  Exercises. 

A  New  Latin  Reader.    With  References,  Suggestions,  Notes,  and  Vocabulary 


I 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


FOR 


SCHOOLS   AND    COLLEGES. 


BY 

ALBERT  BARENESS,   PH.  D.,  LL.  D., 

PROFECS03   IN   BROWN  TJNIVEPSITY. 


REVISED    STANDARD    EDITION 

OF 

1881. 


NEW  YORK, 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

1,  3,  AND  5  BOND   STREET. 

1884. 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1864,  by 

D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 

ENTEBED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874,  by 
D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Conpreds,  at  Washington. 


T),  accor(M.)£  to  let  of  Congressman  thQ  year  1881,  by 

D.   APPLETON   &  COMPANY, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


PEE  FAO  E 

TO    THE    REVISED    EDITION. 

NOTE  TO  THE  REVISED   GRAMMAR. 

Future  editions  of  the  author's  Latin  Reader  and 
other  text-books  will  be  published  with  references  to 
the  new  Grammar.  With  the  help  of  the  table  on 
page  427,  however,  the  corresponding  references  to 
either  edition  of  the  Grammar  may  be  found  without 
inconvenience. 


volume  now  onurea  to  me  pnonc  lias  oetui  pre- 
pared in  view  of  these  facts.  It  is  the  result  of  a  thor- 
ough and  complete  revision  of  the  author's  Latin  Gram- 
mar published  in  1864.  To  a  large  extent,  indeed,  it  is 
a  new  and  independent  work ;  yet  the  paradigms,  rules 
of  construction,  and  in  general  all  parts  intended  for 
recitation,  have  been  only  slightly  changed.  The  aim  of 
the  work  in  its  present  form  is  threefold. 

1.  It  is  designed  to  present  a  clear,  simple,  and  con- 
venient outline  of  Latin  grammar  for  the  bee-inner.     It 

- 


PEE  FAO  E 

TO    THE    REVISED    EDITION. 


THE  last  quarter  of  a  century  has  revealed  many  im- 
portant facts  in  the  development  of  language.  During 
this  period  philological  research  has  thrown  new  light 
upon  Latin  forms  and  inflections,  upon  the  laws  of  pho- 
netic change,  upon  the  use  of  cases,  moods,  and  tenses, 
and  upon  the  origin  and  history  of  numerous  construc- 
tions. The  student  of  Latin  grammar  is  now  entitled  to 
the  full  benefit  of  the  important  practical  results  which 
these  labors  in  the  field  of  linguistic  study  have  brought 
within  the  proper  sphere  of  the  school.  In  securing  this 
advantage,  however,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  divert  the 
attention  of  the  learner  from  the  one  object  before  him 
— the  attainment  of  a  full  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
language. 

The  volume  now  offered  to  the  public  has  been  pre- 
pared in  view  of  these  facts.  It  is  the  result  of  a  thor- 
ough and  complete  revision  of  the  author's  Latin  Gram- 
mar published  in  1864.  To  a  large  extent,  indeed,  it  is 
a  new  and  independent  work ;  yet  the  paradigms,  rules 
of  construction,  and  in  general  all  parts  intended  for 
recitation,  have  been  only  slightly  changed.  The  aim  of 
the  work  in  its  present  form  is  threefold. 

1.  It  is  designed  to  present  a  clear,  simple,  and  con- 
venient outline  of  Latin  grammar  for  the  beginner.  It 


CONTENTS. 


PART     FI.RST. 

ORTHOGRAPHY.  PAGE 

Alphabet     1 

Roman  Method  of  Pronunciation 

English  Method  .                  5 

Continental  Method 

Quantity      ..........         .        .  8 

Accentuation 9 

Phonetic  Changes        ..........  10 

I.  Changes  in  Vowels 11 

II.  Changes  in  Consonants 16 


PART    SECON  D. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER    I. 

NOUNS. 
Gender 21 

Person,  Number,  and  Case  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .22 

Declension 23 

First  Declension .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .        .     24  ' 

Greek  Nouns 26 

Second  Declension 26 

Greek  Nouns    . 29 

Third  Declension 80 

Class  I. — Consonant-Stems 30 

Stems  in  a  Labial 30 

Stems  in  a  Dental 31 

Stems  in  a  Guttural  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .32 

Stems  in  a  Liquid  or  a  Nasal 83 

Stems  in  S .34 

Class  II.— LStems 35 

Special  Paradigms 39 

Greek  Nouns    ..........         40 

Synopsis  of  the  Third  Declension          .        .        .        .         .         .41 

Gender     ...........         46 

Fourth  Declension  f        f  ,48 


viii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Fifth  Declension 50 

General  Table  of  Gender 61 

Declension  of  Compound  Nouns 62 

Irregular  Nouns 63 

I.  Indeclinable 63 

II.  Defective 63 

III.  Heteroclites 65 

IV.  Heterogeneous 66 

CHAPTER    II. 

ADJECTIVES. 

First  and  Second  Declensions 57 

Third  Declension 59 

Irregular  Adjectives 62 

Comparison .63 

I.  Terminational  Comparison 63 

II.  Adverbial  Comparison  .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .65 

Numerals 65 

CHAPTER    III. 

PRONOUNS. 
I.  Personal  Pronouns     .        .         .        .         .        .  .         .70 

II.  Possessive  Pronouns       ........  71 

III.  Demonstrative  Pronouns 72 

IV.  Relative  Pronouns 74 

V.  Interrogative  Pronouns 75 

VI.  Indefinite  Pronouns 76 

Table  of  Correlatives 77 

CHAPTER    IV. 

VERBS. 

Voices,  Moods 78 

Tenses 80 

Numbers,  Persons 81 

Infinitive,  Gerund,  Supine .81 

Participle 82 

Conjugation 82 

Paradigms  of  Verbs 84 

Comparative  View  of  Conjugations 102 

Verbs  in  i5 :  Conjugation  III 106 

Verbal  Inflections 108 

Synopsis  of  Conjugation 110 

Deponent  Verbs 1 14 

Periphrastic  Conjugation 114 

Peculiarities  in  Conjugation 115 

Analysis  of  Verbal  Endings 117 

I.  Tense-signs .         .117 

II.  Mood-signs 117 

III.  Personal  Endings 118 


CONTENTS.  ix 

PAGE 

Formation  of  Stems .         .        .  119 

I.  Present  Stem 110 

II.  Perfect  Stems 121 

III.  Supine  Stem 122 

Classification  of  Verbs 122 

First  Conjugation 122 

Second  Conjugation         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  124 

Third  Conjugation .         .         .127 

Fourth  Conjugation         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  134 

Irregular  Verbs 135 

Defective 141 

Impersonal        ...........  143 

CHAPTER    V. 

PARTICLES. 

Adverbs 144 

Table  of  Correlatives 147 

Comparison    ..........  149 

Prepositions       ...........  149 

Conjunctions          ..........  150 

Interjections      ...........  152 

CHAPTER  VI. 

FORMATION    OF   WORDS. 

I.  Roots,  Stems,  Suffixes 152 

Primary  Suffixes .         .         .  155 

II.  Derivation  of  Words 158 

Derivative  Nouns    .         .        .        .         .         .         .         .         .158 

Derivative  Adjectives          .         .         .         .         .         .        .  165 

Derivative  Verbs 169 

III.  Composition  of  Words .  172 

Compound  Nouns    .         .         .         .         .         .         ...  173 

Compound  Adjectives          .         .         .         ....  174 

Compound  Verbs    .         .         ...         .   "     .         .         .175 


PART     THIRD. 

SYNTAX. 

CHAPTER  I. 

SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 

I.  Classification  of  Sentences 179 

II.  Elements  of  Sentences         .        .        .        .  .  .     182 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER     II. 

SYNTAX  OF  NOUNS. 

PAGE 

I.  Agreement  of  Nouns 184 

Predicate  Nouns 184 

Appositives      .                 185 

II.  General  View  of  Cases 186 

III.  Nominative,  Vocative 187 

I.  Nominative 187 

II.  Vocative 188 

IV    Accusative 189 

I.  Direct  Object 189 

Two  Accusatives .  191 

II.  Accusative  in  an  Adverbial  Sense     .         .        .         .  193 

Accusative  of  Specification 193 

Accusative  of  Time  and  Space       .        .        .         .  194 

Accusative  of  Limit 195 

III.  Accusative  in  Exclamations 196 

V.  Dative 196 

Dative  with  Verbs— Indirect  Object          ...  197 

Dative  with  Special  Verbs 199 

Dative  with  Compounds 201 

Dative  of  Possessor 202 

Dative  of  Apparent  Agent 202 

Ethical  Dative 203 

Two  Datives 204 

Dative  with  Adjectives 204 

Dative  with  Nouns  and  Adverbs        ....  205 

VI.  Genitive 206 

Genitive  with  Nouns 206 

Genitive  with  Adjectives 210 

Predicate  Genitive 212 

Genitive  with  Special  Verba 213 

Accusative  and  Genitive 215 

VII.  Ablative 217 

I.  Ablative  Proper 218 

Ablative  of  Place  from  which 218 

Ablative  of  Separation,  Source,  Cause  .        .        .  218 

Ablative  with  Comparatives 222 

IL  Instrumental  Ablative 223 

Ablative  of  Accompaniment 223 

Ablative  of  Means 224 

Ablative  in  Special  Constructions      ....  225 

Ablative  of  Price 226 

Ablative  of  Difference 226 

Ablative  of  Specification 227 

III.  Locative  Ablative 227 

Ablative  of  Place 227 

Ablative  of  Time 229 

Ablative  Absolute 231 

VIIZ  Cases  with  Prepositions                    « 232 


CONTENTS.  xi 

CHAPTER  III. 

SYNTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES.  PAGK 

Agreement  of  Adjectives 239 

Use  of  Adjectives ...  241 

CHAPTER  IV. 

SYNTAX  OF  PEONOUNS. 

Agreement  of  Pronouns 244 

Use  of  Pronouns .246 

Personal,  Possessive 246 

Reflexive 247 

Demonstrative 248 

Relative 261 

Interrogative 252 

Indefinite 252 

CHAPTER     V. 

SYNTAX  OF  YERBS. 

I.  Agreement  of  Verbs — Use  of  Voices 254 

II.  Indicative  and  its  Tenses         .        .         .        .         .         .         .257 

Tenses  of  Indicative 257 

Use  of  Indicative 262 

III.  General  View  of  the  Subjunctive  and  its  Tenses          .         .  264 

IV.  Subjunctive  in  Principal  Clauses 265 

Subjunctive  of  Desire      .         .         .        .        .         .         .  265 

Potential  Subjunctive 266 

V.  Imperative  and  its  Tenses 268 

VI.  Moods  in  Subordinate  Clauses 269 

I.  Tenses  of  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  Clauses  .        .  269 

II.  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Purpose        ...  273 

III.  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Result       .        .        .        .  276 

IV.  Moods  in  Conditional  Sentences    .        .        .        .        .  280 
V.  Moods  in  Concessive  Clauses 287 

VI.  Moods  in  Causal  Clauses 289 

VII.  Moods  in  Temporal  Clauses 291 

VIII.  Indirect  Discourse 296 

Moods  and  Tenses  in  Indirect  Discourse        .        .  296 
Persons  and  Pronouns  in  Indirect  Discourse      .         .299 

Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse  .        .  299 

Indirect  Clauses 301 

VTI.  Infinitive — Substantive  Clauses 306 

I.  Infinitive 306 

Infinitive  with  Verbs 306 

Accusative  and  Infinitive  with  Verbs         .         .         .  808 

Subject  of  Infinitive 310 

Tenses  of  Infinitive 811 

Infinitive  in  Special  Constructiona          .         .        .  313 

II.  Substantive  Clauses      .         .                 ...  814 


xii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

VIII.  Gerunds,  Gerundives,  Supines,  and  Participles     .         .        .         314 

I.  Gerunds -.        .        .        .314 

II.  Gerundives 316 

III.  Supines 317 

IV.  Participles 318 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SYNTAX  OF  PAETICLE8. 

Adverbs 320 

Conjunctions         ...  321 

Interjections  .  ....  ...  824 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Rules  of  Syntax  324 

CHAPTER  VHI. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  AND  CLAUSES. 

Arrangement  of  Words 333 

Arrangement  of  Clauses  .        .        .        .        .        .        .         336 


PART     FOURTH, 

PROSODY. 

CHAPTER    I. 

QUANTITY. 
I.  General  Rules  of  Quantity          .        .        .        .         .        .        .338 

II.  Quantity  in  Final  Syllables 339 

III.  Quantity  in  Increments       .....                 .  342 

Increments  of  Declension 342 

Increments  of  Conjugation 344 

FV.  Quantity  of  Derivative  Endings 344 

V.  Quantity  of  Stem-Syllables 346 

CHAPTER  H. 

VERSIFICATION. 

I.  General  View  of  the  Subject 349 

Feet 350 

Verses 351 

Figures  of  Prosody  ...  ...  363 


CONTENTS.  xiii 


II.  Varieties  of  Verse 354 

I.  Dactylic  Hexameter 354 

II.  Other  Dactylic  Verses          .     .    .         .        .         .         .  358 

III.  Trochaic  Verse 359 

IV.  Iambic  Verse 360 

V.  Ionic  Verse ...  361 

VI.  Logaoedic  Verse 362 

III.  Versification  of  the  Principal  Latin  Poets 364 

Vergil,  Juvenal,  Ovid,  Horace 364 

Lyric  Metres  of  Horace       .......  364 

Index  to  Lyric  Metres  of  Horace 368 

Catullus,  Martial,  Seneca,  Plautus,  Terence     .         .         .         .368 


APPENDIX, 

I.  Figures  of  Speech 370 

II.  Latin  Language  and  Literature  .         .         .         .        .         .         .374 

III.  Roman  Calendar 376 

IV.  Roman  Money,  Weights,  and  Measures 378 

V.  Roman  Names 380 

Abbreviations 380 

VI.  Vowels  before  Two  Consonants  or  a  Double  Consonant .        .  381 


Index  of  Verbs 383 

General  Index .     390 


TITLES    OF    WOEKS    CITED 

IN    THE    FOOT-NOTES    OF    THIS    GRAMMAR. 

Ada  Societatis  Philologae  Lipsiensis.    Lipsiae,  1870-1881. 

ALLEN,  F.  D.     Remnants  of  Early  Latin.    Boston,  1880. 

BOPP,  F.     Vergleichende  Grammatik.1    Berlin,  3d  ed.,  1870. 

BRAMBACH,  W.     Hulfsbuchlein  fur  lateinische  Rechtschreibung*     Leipzig, 

2d  ed.,  1876. 

BtJCHELER,  F.     Grundriss  der  lateinischen  Declination*    Leipzig,  1866. 
CHRIST,  W.    Metrik  der  Griechen  und  Romer.    Leipzig,  1874. 
CORSSEN,    W.      Aussprache^    Vocalismus,  und    Betonung   der    lateinischen 

Sprache.    Leipzig,  2d  ed.,  1868. 
CORSSEN,  W.    Eritische  Beitrage.    Leipzig,  1863. 

CURTIUS,  G.    Zur  Chronologic  der  indo-germanischen  Sprachforschung.    Leip- 
zig, 2d  ed.,  1873. 

CDRTIUS,  G.    Las  Verbum  der  griechischen  Sprache.    Leipzig,  1876. 
DELBRIJCK,  B.     Ablativ,  Localis,  Instrument alis.    Berlin,  1867. 
DELBRCOK,  B.     Der  Gebrauch  des  Conjunctiva  und   Optativs  im  Sanskrit 

vnd  Griechischen.*    Halle,  1871. 

DRAEGER,  A.    ffistorische  Syntax  der  lateinischen  Sprache.    Leipzig,  1878. 
ELLIS,  A.  J.     Quantitative  Pronunciation  of  Latin.    London,  1874. 
FOERSTER,  W.     Bestimmung  der  lateinischen   Quantitat  aus  dem  Roman- 

ischen.    Kheinisches  Museum,  xxxiii.,  pp.  291-299.    Frankfurt  am  Main. 
HARTUNG,  J.  A.     Ueber  die  Casus,  ihre  Bildung  und  Bedeutung.    Erlangen, 

1831. 

HOFFMANN,  E.    Die  Construction  der  lateinischen  Zeitpartikeln.    Wien,  1873. 
HOLZWEISSIG,  FR.    Localistische  Casustheorie.    Leipzig,  1877. 
H&BSOHMANN,  H.    Zur  Casmlehre.    Miinchen,  1875. 

JOLLY,  J.     Geschichte  des  Infinities  im  Indo-germanischen.    Miinchen,  1873. 
KUHN,   A.     Zeitschrift  fur  vergleichende  Sprachforschung  *    Berlin,  1851- 

1881. 

1  The  publication  of  this  work  in  1833  marked  an  era  in  philological  studies. 

2  Bee  also  BRAMBACH,  "W.    Die  Neugestaltung  der  lateinischen  Orthographic. 
Leipzig,  1868. 

8  An  edition  with  modifications  by  J.  "Windekilde  was  published  at  Bonn,  1879. 
4  Two  other  valuable  works  by  the  same  author  are  : 

1.  Die  Grundlagen  der  griecMschen  Syntax.    Halle,  1879. 

2.  Mnleitung  in  das  Spravhstudium.    Leipzig,  1380.    This  last  work  forms  the 

fourth  volume  in  the  series  of  Indo-European  grammars  now  in  course  of 
publication. 

•  This  periodical  contains  the  latest  views  upon  numerous  questions  connected  with 
comparative  philology  and  linguistic  science. 


xvi  TITLES  OF  WORKS  CITED. 

KDHNKE,  R.  Ausfuhrliche  Grammatik  der  lateinischen  Sprache.  Hanno- 
ver, 1879. 

LUBBERT,  E.    Die  Syntax  von  Quom.    Breslau,  1870. 

MERGUET,  H.     Lateinische  Formenbildung.    Berlin,  1870. 

MEYER,  G.     Griechische  Grammatik.1    Leipzig,  1880. 

MCLLER,  L.  Orthographiae  et  Prosodiae  Latinae  Summarium.  Lipsiae, 
1878. 

MILLER,  L.    De  Re  Metrica  Poetarum  Latinorum  liM  VII.    Lipsiae,  1861. 

MILLER,  MAX.  The  Science  of  Language.  London  and  New  York,  2ded., 
1868. 

MUNRO,  H.  A.  J.     The  P)'onunciation  of  Latin.    Cambridge,  1874. 

NAGELSBACH,  C.  F.    Lateinische  Stilistik.    Nurnberg,  2d  ed.,  1852. 

PAPILLON,  T.  L.  A  Manual  of  Comparative  Philology.  Oxford,  2d  ed., 
1877. 

PEILE,  J.     Greek  and  Latin  Etymology.    London,  2d  ed.,  1872. 

PENKA,  K.  Die,  Nominalflexion  der  indo-germanischen  Sprachen.  Wien, 
1878. 

PRISCIANUS,  C.    Institutionitm  Grammaticarum  libri  XVIII.    Lipsiae,  1855. 

RAMSAY,  W.    Latin  Prosody.    London,  2d  ed.,  1859. 

RITSCHL,  FR.  Umere  heutige  Aussprache  des  Latein.  Rheinisches  Museum, 
xxxi.,  pp.  481-492. 

ROBY,  H.  J.  A  Grammar  of  the  Latin  Language  from  Plautus  to  Sueto- 
nius. London,  1874. 

RUMPEL,  TH.    Die  Casuslehre.    Halle,  1845. 

SCHLEICHER,  AUG.  Compendium  der  vergleichenden  Grammatik.  Wei- 
mar, 1866. 

SCHMIDT,  J.  H.  H.  Leitfadeti  in  der  Ehythmik  und  Metrik  der  classisch- 
en  Sprachen.  Leipzig,  1869.  A  translation  by  Professor  White  has 
been  published  in  Boston,  1878. 

SCHMITZ,  W.    Beitrage  zur  lateinischen  Sprachkunde.    Leipzig,  1877. 

SCROLL,  F.  Veterum  Grammaticorum  de  Accentu  Linguae  Latinae  Testi- 
monia.  Acta  Societatis  Philologae  Lipsiensis,  vi.,  pp.  71-215. 

SIEVERS,  E.     Grundzuge  der  Lautphysiologie.*    Leipzig,  1876. 

SPENGEL,  A.    Plautus,  Erttik,  Prosodie,  Metrik.     Gottingen,  1865. 

Transactions  of  the  American  Philological  Association.  Hartford,  1869- 
1881. 

VANICEK,  A.  Griechisch-lateinisches  etymologisches  Worterbuch.  Leipzig, 
1877. 

WHITNEY,  W.  D.     The  Life  and  Growth  of  Language.    New  York,  1875. 

WORDSWORTH,  J.  Fragments  and  Specimens  of  Early  Latin.  Oxford, 
1874. 

1  This  work  of  Sievers  forms  the  first  volume  and  that  of  Meyer  the  third  in  the 
scries  of  Indo-European  grammars  now  in  course  of  publication. 


LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


1.  LATIST  GRAMMAR  treats  of  the  principles  of  the  Latin 
language.     It  comprises  four  parts  : 

I.  ORTHOGRAPHY,  which  treats  of  the  letters  and  sounds 
of  the  language. 

II.  ETYMOLOGY,  which  treats  of  the  classification,  inflec- 
tion, and  derivation  of  words. 

III.  SYKTAX,  which  treats  of  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences. 

IV.  PROSODY,  which  treats  of  quantity  and  versification. 


PART  FIRST. 
OETHOGEAPHT. 


ALPHABET. 

2.  The  Latin  alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English  with 
the  omission  of  w.1 

1  The  Eomans  derived  their  alphabet  from  the  Greek  colony  at  Cumae.  In  its  origi- 
nal form  it  contained  twenty-one  letters :  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  H,  I,  K,  L,  M,  N,  O,  P, 
Q,  R,  8,  T,  17,  X,  Z.  C  was  a  modification  of  the  Greek  gamma,  and  F  of  the  digam- 
ma.  Q  was  the  Greek  koppa,  which  early  disappeared  from  the  Greek  alphabet.  O  had 
the  sound  afterward  denoted  by  g ;  K,  the  sound  afterward  denoted  by  c.  Z  early  dis- 
appeared from  the  Latin  alphabet,  but  was  subsequently  restored,  though  only  in  foreign 
words.  Throughout  the  classical  period  only  capital  letters  were  used.  On  the  Alphabet, 
see  Whitney,  pp.  59-70;  Papillon,  pp.  28-48;  Wordsworth,  pp.  5-10;  Eoby,  I.,  pp.  21-62; 
Sievers,  pp.  24-108 ;  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  1-346 ;  Kuhner,  I.,  pp.  35-49. 


2  ALPHABET. 

1.  C  in  tne  fourth  eehtuT^'k.  p.  Supplied  the  place  both  of  <7and  of  6f. 

2.  f<r,  introduced  in  the  third  century  B.  c.,  was  formed  from  C  by  simply 
chan^ng  ih'e  Wws j  'part  iot  th&  letter.  '• 

3'.  Even'  ill  'thw1  classical  *pariotf. the-' original  form  (7  was  retained  in  ab- 
breviations of  proper  names  beginning  with  G.  Thus  C.  stands  for  Gdius, 
Cn.  for  Gnaeus.  See  649. 

4.  Jt  j,  modifications  of  7, -i,  introduced  in  the  seventeenth  century  of  our 
era  to  distinguish  the  consonant  /,  i  from  the  vowel  I^i,  are  rejected  by  many 
recent  editors,  but  retained  by  others.1 

5.  The  letters  u  and  #,  originally  designated  by  the  character  F,a  are  now 
used  in  the  best  editions,  the  former  as  a  vowel,  the  latter  as  a  consonant. 

6.  In  classical  Latin,  Ic  is  seldom  used,  and  y  and  z  occur  only  in  foreign 
words,  chiefly  in  those  derived  from  the  Greek. 

3.  Letters  are  divided  according  to  the  position  of  the 
vocal  organs  at  the  time  of  utterance  into  two  general 
classes,  vowels  and  consonants/  and  these  classes  are  again 
divided  into  various  subdivisions,  as  seen  in  the  following 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  LETTERS. 

I.    VOWELS. 


1.  OPEN  TOWEL*        

a 

2.  MEDIAL  VOWELS        .        . 

e              o 

3.  CLOSE  VOWELS  5    

i             y              u 

1  Throughout  the  classical  period,  7,  used  both  as  a  vowel  and  as  a  consonant,  sup- 
plied the  place  of  7,  i  and  J,  j.    As  practical  convenience  has.  however,  already  sanc- 
tioned the  use  of  t,  u,  and  0,  characters  unknown  to  the  ancient  Romans,  may  it  not  also 
justify  the  use  of  J,  j  in  educational  works,  especially  as  the  Eomans  themselves  at- 
tempted to  find  a  suitable  modification  of/  to  designate  this  consonant? 

2  Originally  V,  used  both  as  a  vowel  and  as  a  consonant,  supplied  the  place  of  £7,  u 
and  Fi  0,  but  it  was  subsequently  modified  to  U. 

3  If  the  vocal  organs  are  sufficiently  open  to  allow  an  uninterrupted  flow  of  vocal 
sound,  a  vowel  is  produced,  otherwise  a  consonant ;  but  the  least  open  vowels  are  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  the  most  open  consonants.    Thus  i,  sounded  fully  according  to  the 
ancient  pronunciation  as  ee,  is  a  vowel ;  but,  combined  with  a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable, 
it  becomes  a  consonant  with  the  sound  of  y :  e'-l  (a'-ee^  vowel),  e'-jus  (d'-yitst  conso- 
nant, almost  identical  in  sound  with  a'-ee-us). 

4  In  pronouncing  the  open  vowel  a  as  in  father,  the  vocal  organs  are  fully  open.    By 
gradually  contracting  them  at  one  point  and  another  we  produce  in  succession  the  medial 
vowels,  the  close  vowels,  the  semivowels,  the  nasals,  the  aspirate,  the  fricatives,  and 
finally  the  mutes,  in  pronouncing  which  the  closure  of  the  vocal  organs  becomes  complete. 

a  E  is  a  medial  vowel  between  the  open  a  and  the  close  i,  o  a  medial  vowel  between 
the  open  a  and  the  close  u ;  i  is  a  palatal  vowel,  u  a  labial;  y  was  introduced  from  the 
Greek.  The  vowel  scale,  here  presented  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  may  be  represented  as 
a  line,  with  a  in  the  middle,  with  i  at  the  palatal  extreme,  and  with  u  at  the  labial  extreme  : 


ROMAN  METHOD   OF  PRONUNCIATION.  3 

II.    CONSONANTS. 

GUTTUBALB.  DENTALS.  LABIALS. 

1.  SEMIVOWELS,  sonant          .        .        .  i  or  j  =  y  v  —  w 

2.  NASALS,  sonant     ....  n l  n  m 

3.  ASPIRATE,  surd         ....          h 

4.  FKICATIVES,  comprising 

1.  Liquids,  sonant    ...  1,  r 

2.  Spirants,  surd          ...  8  f 

5.  MUTES,  comprising 

1.  Sonant  Mutes       ...  g  d  b 

2.  Surd  Mutes  c,  k,  q  t  p 
NOTE  1. — Observe  that  the  consonants  are  divided, 

I.  According  to  the  ORGANS  chiefly  employed  in  their  production,  into 

1.  Gutturals— throat  letters,  also  called  Palatals ; 

2.  Dentals— teeth  letters,  also  called  Linguals ; 

3.  Labials — lip  letters. 

II.  According  to  the  MANNER  in  which  they  are  uttered,  into 

1.  Sonants,  or  voiced  letters  ; 

2.  Surds,  or  voiceless  letters* 

NOTE  2.— X=  csf  and  z  =  ds,  are  double  consonants,  formed  by  the  union 
of  a  mute  with  the  spirant  s. 

4.  DIPHTHONGS  are  formed  by  the  union  of  two  vowels 
in  one  syllable. 

NOTE. — The  most  common  diphthongs  are  ae,  oe,  au,  and  eu.  Ei,  oi, 
and  ui  are  rare.4 

ROMAN  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.6 

5.  VOWELS. — The  vowel  sounds  are  the  following  : 

1  With  the  sound  of  n  in  concord,  linger.    It  occurs  before  gutturals :  congressus, 
meeting. 

2  The  distinction  between  a  sonant  and  a  surd  will  be  appreciated  by  observing  the 
difference  between  the  sonant  &  and  its  corresponding  surd  p  in  such  words  as  &ac?,  pad. 
E  is  vocalized,  p  is  not. 

3  X  often  represents  the  union  of  g  and  8,  but  in  such  cases  g  is  probably  first  assimi- 
lated to  c ;  see  3O,  33, 1. 

4  Proper  diphthongs  were  formed  originally  by  the  union  of  an  open  or  medial  vowel, 
a,  *,  or  o,  with  a  close  vowel,  i  or  u,  as  ai,  ei,  oi,  au,  eu,  ou.    An  improper  diphthong 
was  also  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  close  vowels,  as  ui.    For  the  weakening  of  these 
original  diphthongs,  see  23,  note. 

b  In  this  country  three  distinct  methods  are  recognized  in  the  pronunciation  of  Latin. 
They  are  generally  known  as  the  Roman,  the  English,  and  the  Continental  Methods. 
The  researches  of  Corssen  and  others  have  revealed  laws  of  phonetic  change  of  great 
value  in  tracing  the  history  of  Latin  words.  Accordingly,  whatever  method  of  pronun- 
ciation may  be  adopted  for  actual  use  in  the  class-room,  the  pupil  should  sooner  or 
later  be  made  familiar  with  the  leading  features  of  the  Roman  Method,  which  is  at  least 
an  approximation  to  the  ancient  pronunciation  of  the  language. 


ROMAN  METHOD   OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


2 


LONG. 

Si  like  a  in  father  :      a'-rls.1 
e    "    e  "  prey: 
I     "    i  "  machine  :2  I'-H. 
5    "     o  "  old:  o'-ros. 

ii    "    u  "  rule  :2 


SHOBT. 

a  like  a  in  Cuba : 3  a' -met. 
e    "    e  "  net:         re'-^. 
i     "    i  "  cigar:      vi'-det. 
o    "    o  "  obey:      mo' -net. 
u    "    w  "  full:        su'-mus. 

1.  A  short  vowel  in  a  long  syllable  is  pronounced  short :  suntf  u  as  in 
s?/m,  su'-mus.    But  see  16,  note  2. 

2.  Y,  found  only  in  Greek  words,  is  in  sound  intermediate  between  the 
Latin  i  and  u,  similar  to  the  French  u  and  the  German  u :  Ny'-sa. 

3.  I  preceded  by  an  accented  a,  e,  o,  or  y,  and  followed  by  another  vowel, 
is  a  semivowel  with  the  sound  of  y  in  yet  (7) :  A-chd'-ia  (A-ka'-ya). 

4.  U 6  in  qu,  and  generally  in  gu  and  su  before  a  vowel,  has  the  sound  of 
w :  qul  (kwe),  lin'-gua  (lin'-gwa),  sua'-sit  (swa'-sit). 

6.  DIPHTHONGS. — In  diphthongs  each  vowel  retains  its 
own  sound : 

ae  (for  ai)  like  the  English  ay  (yes) :  men'-sae* 
au  like  ow  in  how :  cau'-sa. 

oe  (for  oi)  like  oi  in  coin :  foe'-dus. 

1.  Ei  as  in  v eil,  eu  with  the  sounds  of  e  and  u  combined,  and  oi  =  oe, 
occur  in  a  few  words :  dein7  neu'-ter,  p?'oiti.7 

7.  CONSONANTS.  —  Most   of    the   consonants   are   pro- 
nounced nearly  as  in  English,  but  the  following  require 
special  notice : 

c  like  k  in  king:  ce'-les  (kay-lace),  ci'-vl  (ke-we). 
g    "    g  "  get :    re'-gunt,  re'-gis,  ge'-nus. 

1  The  Latin  vowels  marked  with  the  sign  ~  are  long  in  quantity,  i.  e.,  in  the  dura- 
tion of  the  sound  (16);  those  not  marked  are  short  in  quantity  ;  see  16,  note  8. 

2  Or  e  like  a  in  made,  I  like  e  in  me,  and  u  like  oo  in  moon. 

3  The  short  vowels  can  be  only  imperfectly  represented  by  English  equivalents.    In 
theory  they  have  the  same  sounds  as  the  corresponding  long  vowels,  but  occupy  only 
half  as  much  time  in  utterance. 

4  Observe  the  difference  between  the  length  or  quantity  of  the  vowel  and  the  length 
or  quantity  of  the  syllable.    Here  the  vowel  u  is  short,  but  the  syllable  sunt  is  long; 
see  16, 1.    In  syllables  long  irrespective  of  the  length  of  the  vowels  contained  in  them,  it 
is  often  difficult  and  sometimes  absolutely  impossible  to  determine  the  natural  quantity 
of  the  vowels ;  but  it  is  thought  advisable  to  treat  vowels  as  short  in  all  situations  where 
there  are  not  good  reasons  for  believing  them  to  be  long. 

6  This  is  sometimes  called  the  parasitic  u,  as  having  been  developed  in  many  in- 
stances by  the  preceding  consonant,  and  as  being  dependent  upon  it.  See  Papillon,  p. 
50;  Peile,  p.  383;  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  69,  TO,  and  85. 

6  Combining  the  sounds  of  a  and  i. 

7  When  pronounced  as  monosyllables  in  poetry  (608,  III.) ;  otherwise  as  dissyllables ; 
de'-in,  pro' -in. 


METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.  5 

j  likey  in  yet :     ju'-stum  (yoo-stuui),  ja'-cet. 
S    "    s  "  son :    sa'-cer,  so'-ror,  A'-si-a. 
t     "    t  "  time :  ti'-mor,  to'-tus,  ac'-ti-O. 
v    "    w  "  we :     va'-dum,  m'-ci,  vi'-ti-um.1 

NOTE.— Before  s  and  tf,  &  has  the  sound  of  p :  urbs,  sul'-ter,  pronounced  urps,  sup*- 
ter.*  Ch  has  the  sound  of  k :  cho'-rus  (ko'-ru£). 

8.  SYLLABLES. — In  dividing  words  into  syllables, 

1.  Make  as  many  syllables  as  there  are  vowels  and  diphthongs :  mo'-re, 
pcr-sua1 '-de,  men'-sae. 

2.  Join  to  each  vowel  as  many  of  the  consonants  which  precede  it — 
one  or  more — as  can  be  conveniently  pronounced  at  the  beginning  of  a 
word  or  syllable : 3  pa'-ter,  pa'-tres,  ge'-ne-rl,   do'-mi-nus,  no'-scit,  si'-stis, 
clau'-stra,  men'-sa,  bel'-lum,  tern' -plum,  emp'-tus.     But — 

3.  Compound  words  must  be  separated  into  their  component  parts,  if 
the  first  of  these  parts  ends  in  a  consonant :  db'-es,  ob-i'-re. 

ENGLISH  METHOD   OF  PRONUNCIATION.4 

9.  VOWELS. — Vowels  generally  have  their  long  or  short 
English  sounds. 6 

10.  LOKG  SOUNDS. — Vowels  have  their  long  English 
sounds — a  as  in  fate,  e  in  mete,  i  in  pine,  o  in  note,  u  in 
tube,  y  in  type — in  the  following  situations  : 

1.  In  final  syllables  ending  in  a  vowel : 

Se,  si,  ser'-vi,  ser'-vo,  cor'-nu,  mi'-sy. 

2.  In  all  syllables,  before  a  vowel  or  diphthong : 

De'-us,  dc-o'-rum,  de'-ac,  di-e'-i,  ni'-hi-lum.& 

1  There  is  some  uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  sound  of  0.    Corssen  gives  it  at  the 
beginning  of  a  word  the  sound  of  the  English  -0,  in  all  other  situations  the  sound  of  w. 

2  On  Assimilation  in  Sound  in  this  and  similar  cases,  see  p.  IT,  foot-note  1. 

3  By  some  grammarians  any  combination  of  consonants  which  can  begin  either  a 
Latin  or  a  Greek  word  is  always  joined  to  the  following  vowel,  as  o'-mnis,  i'-pse.    Eoby, 
on  the  contrary,  thinks  that  the  Romans  pronounced  with  each  vowel  as  many  of  the  fol- 
lowing consonants  as  could  be  readily  combined  with  it. 

4  Scholars  in  different  countries  generally  pronounce  Latin  substantially  as  they  pro- 
nounce their  own  languages.    Accordingly  in  England  and  in  this  country  the  English 
Method  has  in  general  prevailed,  though  of  late  the  Eoman  pronunciation  has  gained 
favor  in  many  quarters. 

6  These  sounds  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  are  somewhat  modified  by  the  consonants 
which  accompany  them.  Thus,  before  r,  when  final,  or  followed  by  another  consonant, 
0,  »,  and  u  are  scarcely  distinguishable,  while  a  and  o  are  pronounced  as  in  far,  for. 
Between  qu  and  dr,  or  rt,  a  approaches  the  sound  of  o :  quar'tus,  as  in  quarter. 

6  In  these  rules  no  account  is  taken  of  the  aspirate  7i :  hence  the  first  i  in  nihilum  is 
treated  as  a  vowel  before  another  vowel ;  for  the  same  reason,  c7i,  ph,  and  th  are  treated 
as  single  mutes;  thus  th  in  Athos  and  Othrys, 


6  ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

3.  In  penultimate1  syllables  before  a  single  consonant, 
or  before  a  mute  followed  by  a  liquid  : 

Pa'-ter,  pa'-tres,  ho-no'-ris,  A'-thos,  O'-thrys. 

4.  In  unaccented  syllables,  not  final,  before  a  single  con- 
sonant, or  before  a  mute  followed  by  a  liquid  : 

Do-lo'-ris,  cor'-po-ri,  con'-su-lis,  a-gric1 -o-la. 

1)  A  unaccented  has  the  sound  of  a  final  in  America:  men'-sa,  a-cu-tus, 
a-ma'-mus* 

2)  I  and  y  unaccented,  in  any  syllable  except  the  first  and  last,  gener- 
ally have  the  short  sound :  nob'-i-lis  (nob'-e-lis),  Am'-y-cus  (Am'-e-cus). 

3)  I  preceded  by  an  accented  a,  e,  o,  or  y,  and  followed  by  another 
vowel,  is  a  semivowel 3  with  the  sound  of  y  in  yet :  A-cha'-ia  (A-ka'-ya), 
Pom-pe'-ius  (Pom-pe'-yus),  La-to'-ia  (La-to'-ya),  Har-py'-ia  (Har-py'-ya). 

4)  U  has  the  short  sound  before  bl,  and  the  other  vowels  before  gl 
and  tl:  Pub-lie -o-la,  Ag-la' -o-phon,  At' -las. 

5)  U4  in  qu,  and  generally  in  gu  and  su  before  a  vowel,  has  the  sound 
of  w :  qui  (kwi),  qua  ;  lin'-gua  (lin'-gwa),  lin'-guis  ;  sua'-de-o  (swa'-de-o). 

6)  COMPOUND  WORDS. — When  the  first  part  of  a  compound  is  entire 
and  ends  in  a  consonant,  any  vowel  before  such  consonant  has  generally 
the  short  sound :  a  in  ab'-es,  e  in  red' -it,  i  in  in' -it,  o  in  ob'-it,  prod'-est.    But 
those  final  syllables  which,  as  exceptions,  have  the  long  sound  before  a 
consonant  (11,  1),  retain  that  sound  in  compounds:  post'-quam,  hos'-ce. 
E'-ti-am  and  quo'-ni-am  are  generally  pronounced  as  simple  words.5 

11.  SHORT  SOUNDS. — Vowels  have  their  short  English 
sounds — a  as  in  fat,  e  in  met,  i  in  pin,  o  in  not,  u  in  tub, 
y  in  myth — in  the  following  situations  : 

1.  In  final  syllables  ending  in  a  consonant : 

A -mat,  a' -met,  rex' -it,  sol,  con'-sul,  Te'-thys  ;  except  post,  cs  final,  and  os 
final  in  plural  cases :  res,  di'-es,  hos,  a'gros. 

2.  In  all  syllables  before  x,  or  any  two  consonants  except 
a  mute  followed  by  a  liquid  (10,  3  and  4) : 

Rex' -it,  bel-lum,  rex-e'-runt,  bel-lo'-rum. 

1  Penultimate,  the  last  syllable  but  one. 

2  Some  give  the  same  sound  to  a  final  in  monosyllables :  da,  qua;  while  others  give 
it  the  long  sound  according  to  10, 1. 

3  Sometimes  written  j. 

4  This  is  sometimes  called  the  parasitic  u,  as  having  been  developed  in  many  instances 
by  the  preceding  consonant  and  as  being  dependent  upon  it.    See  Papilloi),  p.  50;  Peile, 
p.  883;  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  69,  70,  and  85. 

*  Etiam  is  compounded  of  et  au&jam ;  quoniam,  otquom  =  guum,  cum,  and  jam. 


MGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.          7 

3.  In  all  accented  syllables,  not  penultimate,  before  one 
or  more  consonants : 

Dom'-i-nus,  pat'-ri-bus.     But — 

1)  A,  e,  or  o  before  a  single  consonant  (or  a  mute  and  a  liquid),  fol- 
lowed by  e,  i,  or  y  before  another  vowel,  has  the  long  sound:  a'-ci-es, 
a'-cri-a,  me'-re-o,  do'-ce-o. 

2)  U,  in  any  syllable  not  final,  before  a  single  consonant  or  a  mute  and 
a  liquid,  except  U,  has  the  long  sound :  Pu'-ni-cus,  sa-lu' -bri-tas. 

3)  Compounds ;  see  10,  6). 

12.  DIPHTHONGS. — Diphthongs  are  pronounced  as  fol- 
lows : 

Ae  like  e :  Cae'-sar,  Daed'~a-lw.1  I    Au  as  in  author :    au'-rum. 
Oe  like  e :  Oe'-ta,  Oed'-i*pus.1        \    Eu  as  in  neuter :    neu'-ter. 

1.  Ei  and  oi  are  seldom  diphthongs,  but  when  so  used  they  are  pro- 
nounced as  hi  height,  coin :  Jiei,  proin  ;  see  Synaeresis,  608,  III. 

2.  Ui,  as  a  diphthong  with  the  long  sound  of  i,  occurs  in  cui,  Tiui^  kuic, 

13.  COXSONAKTS. — The  consonants  are  pronounced  in 
general  as  in  English.     Thus — 

I.  C  and  G  are  soft  (like  s  and  j)  before  e,  i,  y,  ae,  and  oe,  and  hard  in 
other  situations :  ce'-do  (se'-do),  ci'-vis,  Cy'-rus,  cae'-do,  coe'-pi,  a'-ge  (a'-je), 
a'-gi;  ca'-do  (ka'-do),  co' -go,  cum,  Ga'-des.  But 

1.  C  has  the  sound  of  sh — 

1)  Before  i  preceded  by  an  accented  syllable  and  followed  by  a  vowel: 
so'-ci-us  (so'-she-us) ; 

2)  Before  eu  and  yo  preceded  by  an  accented  syllable:  ca-du'-ce-us  (ca- 
du'-she-us),  Sic'-y-on  (Sish'-y-on). 

2.  Ch  is  hard  like  k :  cho'-rus  (ko'-rus),  Chi'-os  (Ki'-os). 

3.  G-  has  the  soft  sound  before  g  soft :  ag'-ger. 

II.  S,  T,  and  X  are  generally  pronounced  as  in  the  English  words  sow, 
time,  expect :  sa'-cer,  ti'-mor,  rex'-i  (reJc'-si).  But — 

1.  S,  T,  and  JTare  aspirated  before  i  preceded  by  an  accented  syllable  and 
followed  by  a  vowel— s  and  t  taking  the  sound  of  sh,  and  x  that  of  ksh :  AV- 
si-um  (Al'-she-um),  ar'-ti-um  (ar'-she-um),  anx'-i-w  (ank'-she-us).  But 

1)  T  loses  the  aspirate— (1)  after  «,  t,  or  x:  Os'-ti-a,  At'-ti-ue,  mix'-ti-o;  (2)  in  old 
infinitives  in  ier:  flec'-ti-er;  (3)  generally  in  proper  names  in  tion  (tyon):  Phi-lis'- 
ti-on,  Am-pMc'-ty-on. 

1  The  diphthong  has  the  long  sound  in  Cae'-sar  and  Oe'-ta,  according  to  10,  3,  but 
the  short  sound  in  Daed'-a-lus  (Ded'-a-lus)  and  Oed'-i-pua  (Ed'-i-pus),  according  to 
11,  3,  as  e  would  be  thus  pronounced  in  the  same  situations. 


8         CONTINENTAL  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

2.  S  is  pronounced  like  z— 

1)  At  the  end  of  a  word,  after  e,  ae,  au,  t>,  m,  n,  r:  spes,  praes,  laus,  urbs,  hi'-ems, 
nions,  pars  ; 

2)  In  a  few  words  after  the  analogy  of  the  corresponding  English  words  :  Cae'-sar, 
Caesar;  cau'-sa,  cause;  mu'-ea,  muse;  mi'-ser,  miser,  miserable,  etc. 

3.  X  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  has  the  sound  of  z :  Xart-ihus. 

14.  SYLLABLES. — In  dividing  words  into  syllables — 

1.  Make  as  many  syllables  as  there  are  vowels  and  diphthongs :  mo' -re, 
per-sua1 -de,  men'-sae. 

2.  Distribute  the  consonants  so  as  to  give  the  proper  sound  to  each 
vowel  and  diphthong,  as  determined  by  previous  rules  (10-12):  pa'-ter, 
pa'-tres,  a-gro'-rum,  au-di'-vi ;  gen'-e-ri,  dom'-i-mis  ;  bel'-lum,  pat'-ri-bus  ; 
emp'-tus,  tern' -plum  ;  rex'-i,  anx'-i-w  ;  post'-quam,  hos'-cc.1 

CONTINENTAL  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.8 

15.  For  the  Continental  Method,  as  adopted  in  this 
country,  take — 

1.  The  Roman  pronunciation  of  the  vowels  and  diphthongs ;  see  5  and  6. 

2.  The  English  pronunciation  of  the  consonants;3  see  13. 

3.  The  Roman  division  of  words  into  syllables ;  see  8. 

QUANTITY. 

1 6.  Syllables  are  in  quantity  or  length  either  long,  short, 
or  common.4 

I.  LOXG. — A  syllable  is  long  in  quantity — 

1.  If  it  contains  a  diphthong  or  a  long  vowel :  haec,  res.6 

1  Observe  that  compound  words  are  separated  into  their  component  parts,  if  the  first 
of  these  parts  ends  in  a  consonant  (1O,  4,  6),  as  post'-quam;  that  in  other  cases,  after  a 
vowel  with  a  long  sound,  consonants  are  joined  to  the  following  syllable,  as  in  the  first 
four  examples,  pa'-ter,  etc.,  and  that,  after  a  vowel  with  a  short  sound,  a  single  conso- 
nant is  joined  to  such  vowel,  as  in  gen'-e-ri  and  dom'-i-nus ;  that  two  consonants  are 
separated,  as  in  bel'-lwm,  etc.;  that  of  three  or  four  consonants,  the  last,  or,  if  a  mute  and 
a  liquid,  the  last  two,  are  joined  to  the  following  syllable,  as  in  emp'-tus,  etc.,  but  that 
the  double  consonant  x  is  joined  to  the  preceding  vowel,  as  in  rex'-i,  anx'-i-us. 

2  Strictly  speaking,  there  is  no  Continental  Method,  as  every  nation  on  the  Continent 
of  Europe  has  its  own  method. 

3  Though  the  pronunciation  of  the  consonants  varies  somewhat  in  different  insti- 
tutions. 

4  Common— i.  e.,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short.    For  rules  of  quantity  see 
Prosody.    Two  or  three  leading  foots  are  here  given  for  the  convenience  of  the  learner. 

6  See  note  8  below. 


ACCENTUATION.  9 

2.  If  its  vowel  is  followed  by  j,  x,  or  z,  or  any  two 
consonants,  except  a  mute  and  a  liquid : l  duxy  rex, 
sunt.* 

II.  SHOKT. — A  syllable  is  short,  if  its  vowel  is  followed 
by  another  vowel,  by  a  diphthong,  or  by  the  aspirate  li: 
di'-es,  m'-aey  ni'-Jiil. 

III.  COMMON. — A  syllable  is  common,  if  its  vowel,  natu- 
rally short,  is  followed  by  a  mute  and  a  liquid  :  a'-gri. 

NOTE  1. — Vowels  are  also  in  quantity  either  long,  short,  or  common;  but 
the  quantity  of  the  vowel  does  not  always  coincide  with  the  quantity  of  the 
syllabled 

NOTE  2.— Vowels  are  long  before  ns  and  nf,  generally  also  before  gn  and 
,;':  cori-sul)  in-fe-lix,  reg'-num,  huf-jus.* 

NOTE  3.— The  signs  ",  *  are  used  to  mark  the  quantity  of  vowels,  the  first 
denoting  that  the  vowel  over  which  it  is  placed  is  long,  the  second  that  it  is 
common,  i.  e.,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short:  a-ma'-bd.  All  vowels 
not  marked  are  to  be  treated  as  short.5 

NOTE  4.— Diphthongs  are  always  long. 

ACCENTUATION.9 

17.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  always  accented  on  the 
first :  meri-sa. 

NOTE.— Monosyllables  are  also  accented. 

18.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented  on 

1  That  is,  in  the  order  here  given,  •with  the  mute  before  the  liquid ;  if  the  liquid  pre- 
cedes, the  syllable  is  long. 

2  Observe  that  the  vowel  in  such  syllables  may  be  either  long  or  short.    Thus  it  is 
long  in  rex,  but  short  in  dux  and  sunt. 

3  Thus  in  long  syllables  the  vowels  may  be  either  long  or  short,  as  in  r%x,  dux,  sunt; 
eee  foot-note  4,  p.  4.    But  in  short  syllables  the  vowels  are  also  short. 

4  See  Schrnitz,  pp.  3-83,  also  p.  56;  Kuhner,  I.,  p.  137;  also  H.  A.  J.  Munro's  pam- 
/alet  on  the  Pronunciation  of  Latin,  pp.  24-26. 

5  See  p.  4,  foot-note  4.    In  many  works  short  vowels  are  marked  with  the  sign  v : 
regie. 

6  With  the  ancient  Komans  accent  probably  related  not  to  force  or  stress  of  voice,  as 
with  us,  but  to  musical  pitch.    It  was  also  distinguished  as  acute  or  circumflex.    Thus 
all  monosyllables  and  all  words  in  which  the  vowel  of  the  penult  is  long  and  the  final 
syllable  short  were  said  to  have  the  circumflex  accent,  while  all  other  accented  words 
were  said  to  have  the  acute.    The  distinction  is  of  no  practical  value  in  pronunciation. 
On  the  general  subject  of  Accent,  see  Ellis,  pp.  8-10 ;  Koby,  I.,  pp.  98-100 ;  Kuhner,  I., 
p.  148 ;  Corsscn,  II.,  pp.  806-808. 


10  PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

the  Penult,1  if  that  is  long  in  quantity,2  otherwise  on  the 
Antepenult:1  ho-no'-ris,  cori-su-lis. 

1.  Certain  words  which  have  lost  a  syllable  retain  the  accent  of  the 
full  form.    Thus— 

1)  Genitives  in  ?  for  il  and  vocatives  in  I  for  ie:  in-ge'-rii  for  in-ge'-ni-l, 
Mer-cu'-rl  for  Mer-cu' -ri-e. 

2)  Certain  words  which  have  lost  a  final  e :  iUlc'  for  il-ll'-cey  il-ldc'  for 
\l-laf-ce,  is-ticr  for  is-tl'-ce,  etc. ;   bo-ndn'  for  bo-nd'-ne,  il-lari  for  il-la'-ne, 
tan-ton'  for  tan-to '-ne,  au-diri  for  au-dls'-ne,  e-duc'  for  e-du'-ce? 

JSToTE  1. — Prepositions  standing  before  their  cases  are  treated  as  Proclitics — i.  e.,  are 
so  closely  united  in  pronunciation  with  the  following  word  as  to  have  no  accent  of  their 
own :  subju'-di-ce*  in-ter  re'-ges. 

NOTE  2.— Penults  common  in  quantity  take  the  accent  when  used  as  long. 

2.  Compounds  are  accented  like  simple  words ;  but — 

1)  The  enclitics,  que,  ve,  ne,  ce,  met^  etc.,  throw  back  their  accents  upon 
the  last  syllable  of  the  word  to  which  they  are  appended :  ho' -mi-ne' -quef 
mm-sa'-que,5  e-gof-met. 

2)  Facid,  compounded  with  other  words  than  prepositions,  retains  its  own 
accent:  ca-le-fa'-cit.* 

3.  A  secondary  or  subordinate  accent  is  placed  on  the  second  or  third 
syllable  before  the  primary  accent— on  the  second,  if  that  is  the  first  syllable 
of  the  word,  or  is  long  in  quantity,  otherwise  on  the  third :  mo'-mt-e'-runt^ 
mo'-nu-e-rd'-musf  in-stau' -rd~ve -runt* 

NOTE. — A  few  long  words  admit  two  secondary  or  subordinate  accents :  Tio'-nd-rif- 
(*cen-ti*'-8i-mu8.*  t  -rry  - 

PHONETIC  CHANGES!" 

1 9.  Latin  words  have  undergone  important  changes  in  accord- 
ance with  phonetic  laws.7 

1  The  penult  is  the  last  syllable  but  one ;  the  antepenult,  the  last  but  two. 

2  Thus  the  quantity  of  the  syllable,  not  of  the  voicel,  determines  the  place  of  the  ac- 
cent: regen'-tis,  accented  on  the  penult,  because  that  syllable  is  long,  though  its  vowel 
Is  short;  see  16, 1.,  2. 

3  According  to  Priscian,  certain  contracted  words,  as  ves-trds'  for  ves-trd'-tis,  or  with 
the  circumflex  accent,  veS'trds  for  ve8+trd-tis,  Sam-nis  for  Sam-ni-tis,  also  retained  the 
accent  of  the  full  form ;  but  it  is  not  deemed  advisable  to  multiply  exceptions  in  a  school 
grammar.    See  Priscian,  IV.,  22. 

*  By  the  English  method,  horn' -i-ne' -que,  cal'-e-fa'-cit. 

fi  A  word  accented  upon  the  penult  thus  loses  its  own  accent  before  an  enclitic : 
men'-sa,  men-sa'-que. 

8  By  the  English  method,  mon'~u-e'-runt,  mon'-u-e-rd'-mus,  hon'-o-rif'-i-cen-tia'- 
*i-mu9. 

7  In  the  history  of  the  ancient  languages  of  the  Indo-European  family,  to  which  thd 
Latin,  Greek,  and  English  alike  belong,  the  general  direction  of  phonetic  change  has  been 
from  the  extremes  of  the  alphabetic  scale — i.  e.,  from  the  open  a  at  one  extreme  and 


PHONETIC  CHANGES.  H 

I.   CHANGES  IN  VOWELS. 

20.  Vowels  are  often  lengthened : 

1.  In  compensation  for  the  dropping  of  consonants : 

Servoms*  servos,  slaves ;  regents,  reges,  kings ;  posnd,  pond,  I  place  ;  magi- 
w, i  mdior  or  major,  greater. 

2.  In  the  inflection  of  verbs : 

Lego,  Ugl,*  I  read,  I  have  read ;  edo,  loll,  I  eat,  I  have  eaten ;  fugid,  fugl, 
I  nee,  I  have  fled. 

NOTE  1.— Sometimes  vowels  are  changed,  as  well  as  lengthened :  ago,  egl,  I  drive, 
I  have  driven ;  facid,  feel,  I  make,  I  have  made ;  see  255,  II. 

NOTE  2.— Different  forms  from  the  same  stein  or  root  sometimes  show  a  variable 
vowel :  duds,  duds,  of  a  leader,  you  lead;  regis,  regis,  you  rule,  of  a  king;  tegd,  toga, 
I  cover,  a  covering,  the  toga.3  See  also  22, 1. 

2 1 .  Vowels  are  often  shortened : 4 

1.  Regularly  in  final  syllables  before  m  and  t: 

Erdm,  eramf  I  was ;  monedm,  moneam,  let  me  advise ;  audidm,  audiam, 
let  me  hear;  erdt,  erat,  he  was;  amdt,  amat,  he  loves;  moriet,  monet,  he 
advises ;  sit,  sit,  may  he  be ;  audit,  audit,  he  hears. 

2.  Often  in  other  final  syllables.     Thus — 

1)  Final  a6  is  shortened  (1)  in  the  Plural  of  Neuter  nouns  and  adjec- 
tives,6 and  (2)  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  Feminine7 
nouns  and  adjectives  of  the  first  declension : 

from  the  close  mutes  at  the  other— toward  the  middle  of  the  scale,  where  the  vowels  and 
consonants  meet;  see  3.  Accordingly,  in  Latin  words  we  shall  not  unfrequently  find  e 
or  o,  or  even  i  or  u,  occupying  the  place  of  a  primitive  a  ;  and  we  shall  sometimes  find  a 
liquid  or  &  fricative  occupying  the  place  of  a  primitive  mute.  See  Whitney,  p.  68; 
Papillon,  p.  49;  Peile,  pp.  199  and  312. 

1  0  short  in  servoms  is  lengthened  in  servos  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  m,  and 
a  short  in  magior  is  lengthened  in  mdior,  major,  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  g. 

2  The  short  vowel  of  the  present  tense  is  here  lengthened  in  the  perfect ;  see  255,  II. 

3  In  ducts,  duds,  and  in  regis,  regis,  the  variation  is  simply  in  the  quantity  of  the 
vowel,  but  in  tegd,  toga,  the  vowel  itself  is  changed,  appearing  as  e  in  tegd  and  o  in  toga. 
Sometimes  a  single  vowel  appears  in  one  form  while  a  diphthong  appears  in  another : 
fides,  faith,  foedus,  treaty. 

4  See  Corssen,  II.,  p.  436  seq. 

6  In  all  these  examples,  the  form  with  the  long  vowel  in  the  final  syllable  is  the  earlier 
form,  and,  in  general,  is  found  only  in  inscriptions  and  in  the  early  poets,  as  Plautus, 
Ennius,  etc.;  while  the  form  with  the  short  vowel  belongs  to  the  classical  period. 

6  Corssen  regards  numerals  in  -gintd,  as  trl-gintd,  quadrd-gintd,  etc.,  as  Plural 
Neuters,  and  a  as  the  original  ending.    He  recognizes  also  the  Neuter  Plural  of  the  pro- 
noun with  d  in  ant-ed,  post-ed,  inter-ed,  praettr-ed,  ante-hd-c,  praeter-hd-c.    See 
Corssen,  II.,  p.  455.    For  a  different  explanation,  see  304,  IV.,  N.  2. 

7  In  masculine  nouns  of  the  first  declension  a  final  was  short  in  the  Nominative  even 
in  early  Latin :  scrlba,  a  scribe.    But  most  stems  in  a  weakened  a  to  o,  and  thus  passed 
into  the  second  declension. 


12  PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

Templd,  templa,  temples;  genera,  gen  era,  kinds  ;  gravid,  gravia,  heavy; 
musd,  musa,  muse  ;  bond,  bona,  good. 

2)  In  ar,  5r,  and  al  final,  a  and  6  are  regularly  shortened  : 

Eegdr,  regar,  let  me  be  ruled  ;  audidr,  audiar,  let  me  be  heard  ;  audidr, 
audior,  I  am  heard;  honor,  honor,  honor;  orator,  orator,  orator;  moneor, 
inoneor,  I  am  advised;  animate,  animal  (27),  animal,  an  animal. 

3)  Final  e,  1,  and  6  are  sometimes  shortened  : 

J3ene,  bene,  well  ;  nube,  nube,  with  a  cloud  ;  nisi,  nisi,  unless  ;  ibl,  ibl, 
there  ;  led,  led,  a  lion  ;  ego,  ego,  I. 

22.  Vowels  are  often  weakened,  i.  e.,  are  often  changed  to 
weaker  vowels.  * 

The  order  of  the  vowels,  from  the  strongest  to  the  weakest,  is  as  follows  : 
a,  o,  u,  e,  i.9 

Thus  a  is  changed  to  o  .  .  .  u  .  .  .  e  .  .  .  i. 

o    to    u  .  .  .  e  .  .  .  i. 

u    to    e  .  .  .  i. 

e    to    i. 

NOTE.—  The  change  from  a  through  o  to  u  is  usually  arrested  at  u,  while  a 
is  often  changed  directly  through  e  to  i  without  passing  through  o  or  u.* 

1.  Vowels  are  often  weakened  in  consequence  of  the  lengthening  of 
words  by  inflection,  composition,  etc.  :  • 

Carmen,*  carmenis,  carminis,  a  song,  of  a  song  ;  fructus,  friictubus,  fr-uc- 
tibus,  fruit,  with  fruits;  facio,  cdn-facid,  cdn-ficid,  I  make,  I  accomplish; 
factus,  In-factus,  In-fectus,  made,  not  made;  damno,  con-damnb,  condem- 
no,  I  doom,  I  condemn  ;  tened,  con-teneO,  con-tineo,  I  hold,  I  contain  ;  cad6, 
ca-cad-l,  ce-cid-l,  I  fall,  I  have  fallen;  tuba,  tuba-cen,  tubi-cen,  a  flute,  a  flute- 
player. 


1  See  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  1-486.    The  process  by  which  vowels  are  shortened  (31),  weak- 
ened, or  dropped  (37),  and  by  which  diphthongs  are  weakened  to  single  vowels,  and  con- 
sonants assimilated,  or  otherwise  changed,  is  generally  known  as  PHONETIC  DECAY.    It 
may  result  from  indistinct  articulation,  or  from  an  effort  to  secure  ease  of  utterance.    For 
a  difficult  sound,  or  combination  of  sounds,  it  substitutes  one  which  requires  less  physical 
effort. 

2  But  u,  e,  and  i  differ  so  slightly  in  strength  that  they  appear  at  times  to  be  simply 
interchanged. 

3  That  is,  the  open  a  is  changed  either  to  the  close  u  through  the  medial  o,  as  seen 
on  the  right  side  of  the  following  vowel-triangle,  or  to  the  close  i  through  the  medial  e, 
as  seen  on  the  left  side  : 

Open  vowel       .......  a 

Medial  vowel*      ......  *>  o 

Close  vowels      .......      *  u 

*  The  syllable  men  was  originally  man.    The  original  a  has  been  weakened  to  e  in 
carmen  and  to  i  in  carmin-is. 


PHONETIC  CHANGES.  13 

2.  Vowels  are  often  weakened  without  any  such  special  cause : l 
Puerom,  puerum,  a  boy ;  filios,  filiu$,  son ;  sont^  swit,  they  are ;  regent, 

rcgunt,  they  rule;  decumus,  decimus,  tenth;  mdxumiis}  mdximus,  greatest; 

legitumus,  legitimus,  lawful ;  aestumd^  aestimO,  I  estimate. 

23.  Two  successive  vowels  are  sometimes  contracted : 

1.  Into  a  DIPHTHONG  :  mensd-1,  mensai,  mensae,  tables  ;  see  4. 

2.  More  frequently  into  a  LONG  VOWEL.     In  this  case  the  second  vowel 
generally  disappears.     Thus  e  and  i  often  disappear  after  a,  e,  and  o  : 

Amdverat,  amaerat,  amdrat,  he  had  loved ;  amdvisse,  amaisse,  amdsse,  to 
have  loved ;  fleverunt,  fleerunt,  fierunt,  they  have  wept ;  novisse^  noisse,  ndsse, 
to  know ;  servol,  servo,  for  the  slave. 

NOTE. — The  proper  diphthongs  of  early  Latin  were  changed  or  weak- 
ened as  follows : 

ai  a  generally  into  ae ;  sometimes  into  e  or  I. 

oi   generally  into  oe ;  sometimes  into  u  or  L 

ei    generally  into  i ;  sometimes  unchanged. 

au  sometimes  into  5  or  u ;  generally  unchanged. 

eu  generally  into  u ;  rarely  unchanged. 

ou  regularly  into  u. 

Aidilis,  aedilis,  an  aedile ;  Eomai,  Eamae,  at  Rome ;  amaimus,  amemus^ 
let  us  love;  in-caedit,  in-cldit,  he  cuts  into;  mensais,  wiensfrs,  with  tables; 
foidus,  foedus,  treaty ;  coira^  coera^  cura,  care ;  loidos,  loedus,  Indus*  play ; 
puerois,  puerls,  for  the  boys ;  ceivis,  civis,  citizen ;  lautus,  lotus f  elegant ; 
ex-claudd,  ex-cludd,  I  shut  out ;  doucit,  duett,  he  leads ;  jous,  jusf  right. 

24.  Vowels  are  sometimes  changed  through  the  influence  of  the 
consonants  which  follow  them.     Thus — 

1  That  is,  by  the  ordinary  process  of  phonetic  decay,  a  process  which  in  many  words 
has  changed  an  original  a  of  the  parent  language  to  0  or  o  in  Latin,  and  in  some  words 
to  i  or  u.  Corssen  cites  upward  of  four  hundred  Latin  words  in  which  he  supposes  a 
primitive  a  to  have  been  weakened  to  o,  e,  or  i.  Even  the  long  vowels  are  sometimes 
weakened.  Compare  the  following  forms,  in  which  the  Sanskrit  retains  the  vowel  of  the 
parent  language. 


SANSKRIT. 

LATIN. 

ENGLISH.       j      SANSKEIT. 

LATIN. 

ENGLISH. 

sapta, 

septem, 

seven. 

padas, 

pedes, 

feet. 

nava, 

novem, 

nine. 

navas, 

novus, 

new. 

daca, 

decem, 

ten. 

vak, 

vox, 

voice. 

xnata, 

mater, 

mother. 

vacas, 

vocis, 

of  a  voice. 

sadas, 

sedes, 

seat. 

vacam, 

vocem, 

voice. 

2  The  forms  ai,  oi,  ei,  au,  eu,  and  ou  are  all  found  in  early  Latin,  as  in  inscriptions ; 
but  in  the  classical  period  ai  had  been  already  changed  to  ae,  oi  to  oe,  and  ou  to  U. 

3  Loidos,  the  earliest  form,  became  loedus  by  weakening  oi  to  oe,  and  o  to  u  (22,  2); 
then  loedus  became  ludus  by  weakening  oe  to  U. 

*  Lautus,  the  earlier,  is  also  the  more  approved  form. 

6  As  eu  and  ou  were  both  weakened  to  i7,  it  is  not  easy  to  give  trustworthy  examples 
of  the  weakening  of  eu  to  ii. 


14  PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

1.  E  is  the  favorite  vowel  before  r,  x,  or  two  or  more  consonants: 

Cinisis,  dneris^  (31),  of  ashes ;  judix,  judex,  judge ;  mllitis,  mllets,  miles,* 
of  a  soldier,  a  soldier. 

NOTE. — E  final  is  also  a  favorite  vowel :  servo,  serve,  0  slave ;  morieris, 
moneri,  moriere*  you  are  advised ;  mari,  mare,  sea. 

2.  I  is  the  favorite  vowel  before  n,  s,  and  t  : 

Homonis,  Jiominis,  of  a  man ;  pulver  or  pulvis,*  dust ;  salutes,  salutis,  ot 
safety ;  verot&s,  veritas,  truth  ;  genetor,  genitor,  father. 

3.  U  is  the  favorite  vowel  before  I  and  m,  especially  when  followed  by 
another  consonant : 

Epistola,  epistula,  letter ;  wit,  vult,  he  wishes ;  facilitds,  faciltds  (27), 
facultds,  faculty ;  monementum,  monumentum,  monument ;  colomna,  colum- 
na,  column.  -"CfT 

25.  ASSIMILATION. — A  vowel  is  often  assimilated  by  a  follow- 
ing vowel.     Thus — 

1.  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  is  often  partially  6  assimilated.    /  is  thus 
changed  to  e  before  a,  o,  or  u :  ia,  ea,  this ;  id,  ed,  I  go ;  iunt,  eunt,  they  go ; 
iadem,  eadem,  same ;  divus,  dlus  (36,  4),  dew,  god. 

NOTE.— When  the  first  vowel  is  thus  adapted  to  the  second,  the  assimilation  is  said  to 
be  regressive,  but  sometimes  the  second  vowel  is  adapted  to  the  first,  and  then  the  as- 
similation is  progressive.  Thus  the  ending  id  (21,  2),  instead  of  becoming  ea  as  above, 
may  become  ie:  luxurid  (perhaps  for  luxurias),  luxuries,  luxury;  mdteria,  mdteries,* 
material. 

2.  A  vowel  may  be  completely  assimilated  by  the  vowel  of  the  following 
syllable  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  consonant.    Thus— 

1)  E  is  assimilated  to  *':  meJii,  mihi,  for  me ;  tebi,  till,  for  you;  sebt,  siM, 
for  himself;  nehil,  nihil,  nothing. 

2)  U  is  assimilated  to  i :  consulium,  consilium,  counsel ;  exsulium,  ex- 
silium,  exile. 

3)  Other  vowels  are  sometimes  assimilated;  o  to  e :  lone,  berie,  lene  (31,  2), 
well ;  e  to  u :  tegurium,  tugurium,  hut ;  e  to  o :  secors,  sdcors,  stupid. 

26.  DISSIMILATION. — A  vowel  is  often  changed  by  dissimilation, 

1  Cinisis,  from  cinis,  becomes  cineris  by  changing  s  to  r  between  two  vowels,  mak- 
ing ciniris  (31, 1),  and  by  then  changing  z  to  €  before  r. 

2  Observe  that  the  vowel  which  appears  as  i  in  mllitis  before  t,  takes  the  form  of  e 
in  milets  before  &,  as  also  in  miles  for  mllets. 

3  Jtfoneris  becomes  monere  by  dropping  s  (36,  5),  and  changing  final  i  to  e. 

4  Observe  that  the  form  in  r  has  e,  while  that  in  *  has  i. 

6  That  is,  it  is  made  like  it,  adapted  to  it,  but  does  not  become  identical  with  it. 
Thus  i  before  a  may  be  changed  to  e,  but  not  to  a. 

•  Thus  from  nouns  in  id  of  the  first  declension  were  developed  nearly  all  nouns  in  ies 
of  the  fifth. 


PHONETIC  CHANGES.  15 

i.  e.,  by  being  made  unlike  the  following  vowel :  n9  e\  these  ;  ils, 
els,  for  these.1 

NOTE.— The  combination  ii  is  sometimes  avoided  by  the  use  of  e  in  place  of  the  sec- 
ond i :  pietas  instead  ofpiitds,  piety ;  societds,  society;  varietas,  variety. 

27.  Vowels  are  often  dropped  in  the  middle  or  at  the  end  of 
words,  sometimes  even  at  the  beginning  : 

Tempulum,  templum,  temple ;  mnculum,  mnclum,  band ;  benigenus,  benlg- 
nus*  benignant ;  amao,  amd,  I  love ;  temploa,  templa,  temples ;  animdle,  ani- 
mal,3 an  animal ;  sl-ne,  sin,  if  not ;  dice,  die,  say ;  esum,  sum,  I  am ;  esumus, 
sumus,  we  are. 

NOTE.— After  a  word  ending  in  a  vowel  or  in  m,  est,  he  is,  often  drops  the  initial  e, 
and  becomes  attached  to  the  preceding  word :  res  optuma  eat,  res  optumast,  the  thing 
is  best ;  optumum  est,  optumumst,  it  is  best ;  d oml  est,  demist,  he  is  at  home.  In  the 
same  way  es,  thou  art,  is  sometimes  attached  to  the  preceding  word,  when  that  word 
ends  in  a  vowel :  homo  es,  Jtomos,  you  are  a  man.  For  the  loss  of  a  final  «  from  the  pre- 
ceding word,  see  36,  5, 1),  note, 

II.  INTERCHANGE  OF  VOWELS  AND  CONSONANTS. 

28.  The  vowel  i  and  the  consonant  i — also  written  j — are  some- 
times interchanged  : 

Altior,*  higher;  magior,  mdior  or  major,  greater;  ipsius,  of  himself;  eius 
or  ejus,  of  him. 

29.  The  vowel  u  and  the  consonant  u — generally  written  v — are 
often  interchanged  : 

Col-ul,5  I  have  cultivated ;  wcd~m,5  I  have  called ;  ndvita,  ndvta,  nauta, 
sailor ;  volvtus,  volutus,  rolled ;  lavtus,  lautus  or  lotus,9  washed ;  movtus, 
moutus,  motus,*  moved. 

NOTE.— The  Liquids  and  Nasals  are  sometimes  so  fully  vocalized  as  to  develop  vowels 

1  The  combination  uu  was  also  avoided  in  early  Latin  either  by  retaining  the  second 
vowel  in  the  form  of  o,  instead  of  weakening  it  to  u,  or  by  changing  qu  to  c :  equos, 
afterward  equus,  a  horse;  quom,  or  cum,  afterward,  though  not  properly  in  classical 
times,  quum,  when.    Observe  that  when  o  becomes  u,  a  preceding  qu  becomes  c  :  quom, 
cum  ;  loquotus,  locutus,  having  spoken.    See  Brambach,  p.  5. 

2  See  1 6,  note  2. 

3  Observe  that  after  e  is  dropped,  d  is  shortened  in  the  final  syllable :  animal,  ani- 
mal; see  21,  2. 

4  In  the  comparative  ending  ior,  as  seen  in  altior,  i  is  a  vowel,  but  in  the  same  end- 
ing, as  seen  in  mdior,  major,  it  is  a  consonant,  and  in  this  grammar  is  generally  written^. 
/  thus  becomes  j  between  two  vowels ;  see  2,  4,  foot-note.    So  in  the  genitive  ending 
ius,  i  is  sometimes  a  vowel  and  sometimes  a  consonant. 

6  The  ending  which  appears  as  ul  in  col-ul  becomes  vl  in  vocd-vi.  U  becomes  v 
between  two  vowels. 

6  If  a  vowel  precedes  the  V  thus  changed  to  u,  a  contraction  takes  place— a-u  becom- 
ing cm,  rarely  o,  o-u  becoming  d,  and  u-u  becoming  u :  lavlus,  lautus,  lotus,  washed  i 
movtus,  moutus,  motus,  moved ;  juvtus,  juutus,  jutus,  assisted, 


16  PHONETIC   CHANGES. 

before  them.1    Thus  agr  (for  agrus)  becomes  ager*  field ;  acr  (for  dcris),  deer*  sharp; 
regm,  regem,  king ;  sm  (for  esm\  sum,  I  am ;  snt  (for  esn*),  *w^,  they  are. 

III.  CHANGES  IN  CONSONANTS. 

30.  A  Guttural — c,  g,8  q  (qu),  or  h4 — before  s  generally  unites 
with  it  and  forms  x : 

Dues,  dux,  leader ;  pdcs,  pax,  peace ;  regs,  recs*  rex,  king ;  legs,  tecs,  lex, 
law ;  coqusl,  cocsif  coxl,  I  have  cooked ;  traksi,  tracsl,  traxl,  I  have  drawn. 

NOTE  1.— Ffor  gv  in  vivo,  I  live,  is  treated  as  a  guttural :  vwsi,  vlcsl,  <vixi,  I  have 
lived. 

NOTE  2.— For  the  Propping  of  the  Guttural  before  s,  see  36,  3. 

31 .  S  is  often  changed  to  r : 

1.  Generally  so  when  it  stands  between  two  vowels :  floses,  flores,  flowers ; 
jusa,  jura,  rights ;  mensdsum,  mensdrum,  of  tables ;  agrosum,  agrdrum,  of 
fields ;  esam,  eram,  I  was ;  esdmus,  erdmus,  we  were ;  fuesunt,  fuerunt,  they 
have  been ;  fuesit,fuerit,  he  will  have  been ;  amdset,  amdret,  he  would  love ; 
regisis,  regeris*  you  are  ruled. 

2.  Often  at  the  end  of  words :  Jionds,  honor,  honor ;  robos,  robus,  robur, 
strength;  puesus, puerus, puer,"1  boy;  regituse,  regiture,  regitur,"1  he  is  ruled.8 

3.  Sometimes  before  m,  n,  QIV:  casmen,  carmen,  song;  vetesnus,  veternus,  old ; 
hodiesnus,  hodiernus,  of  this  day ;  Minesva,  Minerva,  the  goddess  Minerva. 

32.  D  is  sometimes  changed  to  1 : 

Dacrima,  lacrima,  tear ;  dingua,  lingua,  language ;  odere,  olere,  to  emit  an 
odor. 

NOTE  1.—- D  final  sometimes  stands  in  the  place  of  an  original  t:  id,9  this;  itttud, 
that;  illud,  that;  quod,  quid,  what,  which? 

NOTE  2.— Dv  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  (1)  sometimes  becomes  Z> :  dvellum,  bellum, 
war;  dvis,  bis,  twice;  (2)  sometimes  drops  d :  dviginti,  mginti,  twenty;  and  (8)  some- 
times drops  v :  dvis,  dis,  inseparable  particle  (3O8),  in  two,  asunder. 

33.  PARTIAL  ASSIMILATION. — A  consonant  is  often  partially10 
assimilated  by  a  following  consonant.     Thus — 

1  This  occurs  between  consonants  and  at  the  end  of  words  after  consonants. 

2  The  ending  us  or  is  is  dropped  (36,  5,  2),  note),  and  r  final  vocalized  to  &r;  m 
becomes  em  in  regem,  and  um  in  sum  ;  n  becomes  un  in  aunt. 

3  Sometimes  gu :  exstingusi,  exstincsl,  exstinxi,  I  have  extinguished. 

4  For  an  original  gh. 

6  The  process  seems  to  be  that  the  guttural  before  s  first  becomes  c,  and  then  unites 
with  s  and  forms  x :  thus  in  coqusl,  qu  becomes  c. 

6  Observe  that  i  before  s  becomes  e  before  r  ;  see  24. 

7  Here  8  was  probably  changed  to  r  before  the  final  vowel  was  dropped. 

8  Literally,  Tie  rules  himself. 

9  For  it,  istut,  etc.    D  stands  for  t  also  in  the  old  Ablative  in  d :  praeddd  for  prae- 
ddt,  afterward  praedd,  with  booty ;  magistrdtud  for  magistrdtut,  magistrdtu,  from 
the  magistracy. 

1°  That  is,  it  is  adapted  or  accommodated  to  it,  but  does  not  become  the  same  letter. 


PHONETIC  CHANGES.  17 

1.  Before  the  surd  s  or  t,  a  sonant  b  or  g  is  generally  changed  to  its 
corresponding  surd,  p l  or  c : 

Scribsl,  scripsl,  I  have  written ;  scribtus,  scrlptus,  written ;  regsl,  recsl,  r'exl 
(30),  I  have  ruled ;  regtus,  rectus,  ruled.  See  also  35,  3,  note. 

NOTE. — Qu,  h  for  gh,  and  V  for  gv  are  also  changed  to  c  before  8  and  t :  coqusit* 
cocsit,  coxit,  he  has  cooked ;  coqutus,  coctust  cooked ;  trahsit*  tracsit,3  traxit,  he  has 
drawn ;  trahtus,  tractus,  drawn ;  vivsit,*  vicsit,  vlxit,  he  has  lived ;  vlvtumw,  vlcturus, 
about  to  live. 

2.  Before  a  sonant  1,  m,  n,  or  r,  a  surd  c,  p,  or  t  is  generally  changed 
to  its  corresponding  sonant,  g,  b,  or  d  : 

Neclego,  neglegB,  I  neglect ;  sec-mentum,  segmentum,  a  cutting ;  populicusf 
puplicus,  publicusf  public ;  quatra?  quadra,  a  square ;  quatrdgintd,  quadra- 
gintd,  forty. 

3.  Before  a  Labial  p  or  b,  n  is  generally  changed  to  m : 8 

Inperd,  imperd,  I  command;  inperdtor,  imperdtor,  commander;  iribellis, 
imbellis,  unwarlike. 

NOTE.— Before  tt,  a  Labial  p  or  &  is  changed  to  m  in  a  few  words :  sopnus,  somnus, 
sleep ;  Sdbniwn,  Samnium,  the  country  of  the  Samnites. 

4.  M  is  changed  to  n — 

1)  Regularly  before  a  Dental  Mute : 

Eumdem,  eundem,  the  same  ;  eorumdem,  eorundem,  of  the  same ;  quemdam, 
quendam,  a  certain  one;  tamtus,  tantus,  so  great;  quamtus,  quantus,  how 
great)  as  great. 

2)  Often  before  a  Guttural  Mute  : 

Hum-ce,  hunc,  this ;  num-ce,  nuncf  now ;  prlm-ceps,  prlnceps,  first ;  num- 
quam  or  nunquam*  never ;  quamquam  or  quanquam,  although. 

1  But  b  is  generally  retained  (1)  before  s  in  nouns  in  Is :  url>8,  not  urps,  city,  and  in 
a&s,  from ;  and  (2)  before  8  and  t  in  o&,  on  account  of,  and  sw&,  under,  in  compounds  and 
derivatives:  ob-servdm,  observant;  ob-tusus^  obtuse;  *w&-«cr2&o,  I  subscribe;  sub-ter, 
under.  In  these  cases,  however,  b  takes  the  sound  of  p,  so  that  assimilation  takes  place 
in  pronunciation,  though  not  in  writing.  It  is  probable  also  that  in  some  other  conso- 
nants assimilation  was  observed  even  when  omitted  in  writing:  inprlmw  and  im- 
primis, both  pronounced  imprimis.  See  Eoby,  I.,  p.  Ivii. ;  Munro,  p.  10. 

*"  Qu,  also  written  qv,  is  not  a  syllable ;  nor  is  u  or  v  in  this  combination  either  a 
vowel  or  a  consonant,  but  simply  a  parasitic  sound  developed  by  q,  which  is  never  found 
without  it. 

For  traghsit;  h  is  dropped,  and  g  assimilated  to  c. 

For  gvlgvsit;  the  first  g  and  the  second  v  are  dropped :  vlgsit^  vlcsit,  vlxit. 

From  populus,  the  people. 

P  is  changed  to  &,  and  o  is  weakened  to  u  ;  see  23. 

From  quattuor,  four. 

That  is,  the  dental  n  becomes  the  labial  m. 

"  Or  "  placed  between  two  forms  denotes  that  both  are  in  good  use :  numquam  or 
nunquam.    In  other  cases  the  last  is  the  only  approved  form :  nunc,  prlnceps. 


18  PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

NOTE  1.— Before  the  ending  -que,  m  is  generally  retained:  *  qulcumque,  whoever; 
quemque,  every  one ;  namque,  for  indeed. 

NOTE  2.— Quom-iam  or  quoin-jam  becomes  quoniam,  since. 

34.  A  consonant  is  often  completely  assimilated  by  a  following 
consonant.     Thus — 

1.  T  or  d  is  often  assimilated  before  n  or  s  : 

Petna,  penna,  feather ;  mercedndrius,  mercenndrius,  mercenary ;  concutsit, 
concussit,  he  has  shaken. 

NOTE. — M  before  s  is  sometimes  assimilated,  and  sometimes  develops  p : 
premsit,  pressit,  he  has  pressed ;  sumsit,  sumpsit,  he  has  taken. 

2.  3D,  n,  or  r  is  often  assimilated  before  1 : 

Sedula,  sedla  (27),  sella,  seat;  unulus,  unlus  (37),  ullus,  any;  pu&rula, 
puerla,  puella,  girl. 

3.  B,  g,  or  n  is  often  assimilated  before  m : 

Sub-moved  or  sum-moved,  I  remove ;  supmus,  summits,  highest ;  flagma, 
flamma,  flame ;  inmotus  or  immotus,  unmoved. 

NOTE. — For  ASSIMILATION  in  Prepositions  in  Composition,  see  344,  5. 

35.  DISSIMILATION. — The  meeting  of  consonants  too  closely  re- 
lated and  the  recurrence  of  the  same  consonant  in  successive  syllables 
are  sometimes  avoided  by  changing  one  of  the  consonants.     Thus — 

1.  Caeluleus  becomes  caeruleus,  azure ;  medl-dies,  meridies,  midday. 

2.  Certain  suffixes  of  derivation  have  two  forms,  one  with  r  to  be  used 
after  I,  and  one  with  I  to  be  used  after  r : 2  aris,  dlis ;  burum,  brumf  bu- 
lum  ;  3  curum,  crum,  culum  : 

Popularis^  popular ;  regdlis*  kingly ;  delubrum,  shrine ;  tribulum,  thresh- 
ing-sledge ;  sepulcrum,  sepulchre  ;  periculum,  peril. 

3.  A  Dental  Mute — d  or  t — may  unite  with  a  following  t  in  two  ways  : 

1)  Dt  or  tt  may  become  st : 5 

Edt,  est,  he  eats ;  rodtrum,  rostrum,  a  beak ;  equettris,  equestris,  equestrian. 

2)  Dt  or  tt  may  become  ss  or  s : 6 

Fodtus,  fossus,  dug ;  vidtus,  visus,  seen ;  plandtus,  plausw,  praised ;  met' 
tits,  messus,  reaped ;  verttus,  versus,  turned. 

1  But  probably  with  the  sound  of  n  ;  see  p.  17,  foot-note  1. 

2  This  distinction  is,  however,  not  always  observed.    The  form  with  ?,  probably 
weakened  from  that  with  r,  became  the  favorite  form,  and  was  generally  used  if  I  did 
not  precede. 

3  From  bunim  are  formed  (1)  brum  by  dropping  «•,  and  (2)  bulum  by  weakening  r 
into  1.    In  the  same  way  crum  and  culum  are  formed  from  curum. 

4  In  popularly  dris  is  used  because  I  precedes ;  but  in  regdlis,  dlis  is  used  because 
r  precedes.    When  neither  I  nor  r  precedes,  the  weakened  form  dlis  is  used. 

8  Here  d  or  t  is  changed  to  s  by  Dissimilation. 

6  In  regard  to  the  exact  process  by  which  dt  or  tt  becomes  ss  or  s,  there  is  a  diversity 
of  opinion  among  philologians.  See  Papillon.  p.  75;  Roby,  p.  62  j  Corsgen,  I.,  p.  208.  ., 


PHONETIC   CHANGES.  19 

NOTE.— Lgt  may  become  U;  l  rgt,  ra;  l  lit,  U;  a  and  rrt,  rs;2  mulgtus,  multus, 
milked;  spargtus,  sparsus,  scattered;  fa lltus,  falsus,  false;1  verrtus,  versus,  swept. 

36.  OMISSION. — Consonants  are  sometimes  dropped.     Thus — 

1.  Some  words  which  originally  began  with  two  consonants  have  dropped 
the  first : 

Clamentum*  lamentum,  lamentation;  gndtus,  ndtus,  born;  gnotus*  notus, 
known;  dviginti,  mgintl,  twenty;  sfallit,fattit,  he  deceives. 

2.  A  Dental  Mute— d  or  t— before  s  is  generally  dropped : 5 

Lapids,  lapis,  stone ;  aetdts,  aetds,  age ;  milets,  miles,  soldier ;  claudsl, 
clausl,  I  have  closed. 

NOTE. — D  is  occasionally  dropped  before  other  consonants :  hod-ce,  hocZ,  hoc,  thia  ; 
quod-circd,  qudcirca*  for  which  reason  :  ad-gnosco,  dgnoscd,  I  recognize. 

3.  A  Guttural  Mute— c,  g,  or  q  (qu)— is  generally  dropped — 

1)  Between  a  Liquid  and  s  : 

Mulcsit,  mulsit,  he  has  appeased ;  fulgsit,fulsit,  it  has  lightened. 

2)  Between  a  Liquid  and  t : 

Fulctus,  fultus,  propped  ;  sarctus,  sartus,  repaired. 

3)  Between  a  Liquid  and  m : 

Fulgmen^fulmen,  lightning ;  torqumentum,  tormentum,  engine  for  hurling 
missiles. 

NOTE  1.— -A  Guttural  Mute  is  occasionally  dropped  in  other  situations.7 
Thus— 

1.  C  before  in  or  n :  lucmen,  lumen^  light;  lucna,  Ittna,  moon. 

2.  C  between  n  and  d  or  t :  qulnctus,  qulntus^  fifth ;  qulncdecim,  quindecim,  fif- 
teen. 

3.  G  before  m  or  v : 8  exagmen,  exdmen  (30, 1),  a  swarm ;  jugmentum,  jumentum, 
beast  of  burden ;  magvult,  mdvult,  he  prefers  ;  bregvis,  brevis^  short. 

NOTE  2.—^  is  sometimes  dropped :  seadecim,  sedecim  (20, 1),  sixteen ;  sexnl,  senl, 
six  each  ;  texula,  texla,  tela,  a  web  ;  axula^  axla,  dla^  wing, 

NOTE  3.— N*  r,  and  «  are  sometimes  dropped  :  in-gnotus,  Igribtus,  unknown ;  for- 
monsus,  formosus,  beautiful;  quotient,™  quoties,  how  often;  deciens,  decies,10  ten 

1  T  is  changed  to  *,  and  g  is  dropped. 

2  T  is  changed  to  s,  and  one  I  is  dropped  in  lit,  and  one  r  in  rrt. 

3  Compare  cldmo,  I  cry  out. 

4  Seen  in  l-gnotus,  Ignatius,  unknown. 

6  Probably  first  assimilated  and  then  dropped :  lapids,  lapiss,  lapis.  But  the  dental 
is  sometimes  assimilated  and  retained :  cedsi,  cZssl,  I  have  yielded :  concutsit,  concus- 
sit,  he  has  shaken. 

6  0  lengthened  in  compensation ;  see  20, 1. 

7  fSevtius  becomes  Sestius,  a  proper  name;  eexcentl,  sescentl,  six  hundred;  and 
mixtus,  mlstus,  mixed,  by  dropping  the  mute  contained  in  the  double  consonant  x. 

8  G  has  also  been  dropped  in  did  for  agio,  I  say ;  major  for  magior,  greater,  etc. 

9  In  numerals  nt  is  sometimes  dropped  :  ducentnl,  ducenl,  two  hundred  each ;  i?i- 
g«nt-8imus  or  vlcent-simus,  vigesimus  or  vicZsimus,  twentieth. 

10  So  in  all  numeral  adverbs  in  iens,  iSs.    The  approved  ending  in  most  numeral 


20  PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

times ;  mulier-bris,  muliebris,  womanly ;  prorsa,  prosa,  prose  ;  udem,  idem,  same ; 
jus-dex,  judex,  judge;  audisne,  audine,  audin,  do  you  hear?  visne,  vine,  vln,  do 
you  wish  ? 

4.  A  Semivowel— j  or  v,  also  written  i  or  u — is  often  dropped  : 
Bi-jugae,  biugae,  blgae,  chariot  with  two  horses ;  quadri-jugae,  quadrigae, 
chariot  with  four  horses ;  con-junctus,  co-junctus,  cunctus,  the  whole  ;  abjicid 
or  abicid,1 1  throw  away ;  divitior,  diitior,  ditior,  richer ;  nevoU,  neoU,  nold,  I 
am  unwilling ;  amdverat,  amaerat,  amdrat,  he  had  loved.2 

NOTE.— Separate  words  are  sometimes  united  after  the  loss  of  v :  si  vis,  siis,  sis,  i» 
you  wish ;  8l  vultis,  siultis,  sullis,  if  you  wish. 

6.  Final  consonants  are  often  dropped.     Thus — 

1)  Final  s  is  often  dropped : 3 

Morieris,  moriere  (24, 1,  note),  you  are  advised ;  illus,  illu,  ilU,  that ;  istw, 
istu,  iste,  that  of  yours ;  ipsus,  ipsu,  ipse,  self,  he  ;  parricidas,*  parricida,  par- 
ricide ;  magis  or  mage,  more ;  sivis,  sive,  whether,  lit.,  if  you  wish. 

NOTE.— In  the  early  poets  es,  thou  art,  and  est,  he  is,  after  having  dropped  the  initial 
«,  sometimes  become  attached  to  the  preceding  word,  which  has  lost  its  final  * :  veritus 
es%  verities,  you  feared ;  tempus  estt  tempust,  it  is  time ;  virtus  est,  mrlust,  it  is  virtue. 
See  27,  note. 

2)  A  final  d  or  t  is  often  dropped : 

Cord,  cor,  heart ;  praedad,  praedd,5  with  booty  ;  intrdd,  intrd,  within ;  /a- 
ciluiriedf  facilliirie,  most  easily ;  verier unt,"1  verieru,  verier e,  they  have  come  ; 
rexerunt,  rexere,  they  have  ruled. 

NOTE. — Sometimes  both  a  vowel  and  a  consonant  disappear  at  the  end  of  a  word : 
puerus,  puer,  boy  (51,  2,  4));  deinde  or  dein,  thereupon;  nihilum  or  nihil^  nothing. 

3)  A  final  n8  is  generally  dropped  in  the  Nominative  Singular  from 
stems  in  on: 

Leon,  led,  lion ;  praeddn,  praedo,  robber ;  Tiomon,  Tiomd,  man. 

adverbs  is  ies,  but  in  those  formed  from  indefinite  numerals,  as  tot,  quot,  it  is  tens: 
totiens,  quotiens. 

1  This  is  the  approved  form  in  verbs  compounded  ofjacid  and  monosyllabic  preposi- 
tions ;  but  abidd  is  pronounced  as  if  written  abjicid  or  ab-iicid,  i.  e.,  •*  =jit  pronounced 
ye  by  the  Eoman  method.    The  syllable  ab  thus  remains  long. 

2  Several  adverbial  forms  were  produced  by  the  loss  of  t>  with  the  attendant  changes : 
revorgus,  reorsus,  rursus,  back ;  subsTOorsum,  vu&vorsum,  suorsum,  sdrsum,  from  be- 
low, on  high. 

3  In  early  inscriptions  proper  names  in  os,  afterward  us,  occur  without  the  a  as  often 
as  with  it :  Rd&cios,  Roscio ;  Gablnios,  Gablnio. 

4  This  form  actually  occurs  in  early  Latin. 

6  The  Ablative  singular  ended  anciently  in  d,  originally  t.    Many  prepositions  and 
adverbs  in  d  and  e  are  ablatives  in  origin,  and  accordingly  ended  in  d. 

9  Written  with  one  I,  afterward  with  two. 

7  Here  final  t  was  first  dropped,  then  n,  having  become  final,  also  disappeared,  and  at 
last  final  u  was  weakened  to  e  ;  see  24, 1,  note. 

8  In  early  inscriptions  final  m  is  often  dropped. 


ETYMOLOGY.  21 

PART  SECOND. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

37.  ETYMOLOGY  treats  of  the  classification,  inflection, 
and  derivation  of  words. 

38.  The  Parts  of  Speech  are — Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pro- 
nouns,   Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and 
Interjections. 

CHAPTEK    I. 

NOUNS. 

39.  A  Noun  or  Substantive  is  a  name,  as  of  a  person, 
place,  or  thing  :    Cicero,  Cicero  ;    Roma,  Borne ;    domus, 
house. 

1.  A  PROPER  NOUN  is  a  proper  name,  as  of  a  person  or  place :  CicerQ , 
Roma. 

2.  A  COMMON  NOUN  is  a  name  common  to  all  the  members  of  a  class 
of  objects :  viry  man  ;  equus,  horse.     Common  nouns  include — 

1)  Collective   Nouns,   designating    a   collection  of   objects  :   populus, 
people;  exercitus,  army. 

2)  Abstract  Nouns,  designating  properties  or  qualities :  virtus,  virtue ; 
justitia,  justice. 

3)  Material  Nouns,   designating   materials    as    such :    aurum,    gold ; 
Hgnum,  wood ;  aqua,  water. 

40.  Nouns  have  Gender,  Number,  Person,  and  Case. 

I.  GENDER. 

41.  There  are  three  genders1 — Masculine,  Feminine,  and 
Neuter. 

NOTE.-— In  some  nouns  gender  is  determined  by  signification  ;  in  others,  by  endings. 

1  In  English,  (fender  denotes  sex.  Accordingly,  masculine  nouns  denote  males ; 
feminine  nouns,  females;  and  neuter  nouqs,  objects  which  are  neither  male  nor  female. 
In  Latin,  however,  this  natural  distinction  of  gender  is  applied  only  to  the  names  of 
males  and  females ;  while,  in  all  other  nouns,  gender  depends  upon  an  artificial  dis- 
tinction according  to  grammatical  rules. 


22  PERSON  AND  NUMBER.    CASES. 

42.  GENEKAL  KULES  FOR  GENDER. 
I.  MASCULINES. 

1.  Names  of  Males :  Cicero;  vir,  man  ;  rex,  king. 

2.  Names   of    Rivers,    Winds,   and   Months :    Rhenus, 
Ehine  ;  Notus,  south  wind  ;  Martins,  March. 

II.  FEMINIZES. 

1.  Names  of  Females :  mulier,  woman  ;  leaena,  lioness. 

2.  Names  of   Countries,    Towns,  Islands,   and   Trees  : 
Graecia,  Greece ;  Roma,  Rome  ;  Delos,  Delos  ;  pirns,  pear- 
tree. 

NOTE.— Indeclinable  nouns,1  infinitives,  and  all  clauses  used  as  nouns  are  neuter: 
alpha,  the  letter  a.2    See  also  533. 

43.  REMARKS  ON  GENDER. 

1.  EXCEPTIONS. — The  endings 3  of  nouns  sometimes  give  them  a  gender 
at  variance  with  these  rules.     Thus,  some  names  of  rivers,  countries,  towns, 
islands,  trees,  and  animals  take  the  gender  of  their  endings ;  see  53,  1. 

2.  MASCULINE  OR  FEMININE. — A  few  personal  appellatives  applicable  to 
both  sexes  and  a  few  names  of  animals  are  sometimes  masculine  and  some- 
times feminine,  but  when  used  without  distinct  reference  to  sex  they  are 
generally  masculine :  civis,  citizen  (man  or  woman) ;  bos,  ox,  cow. 

3.  EPICENE  NOUNS  apply  only  to  the  inferior  animals.     They  are  used 
for  both  sexes,  but  have  only  one  gender,  and  that  is  usually  determined 
by  their  endings  :  anser,  goose,  masculine ;  aquila,  eagle,  feminine. 

II.  PERSON  AND  NUMBER. 

44.  The  Latin,  like  the  English,  has  three  persons  and 
two  numbers.     The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker  ;  the 
second,  the  person  spoken  to  ;  the  third,  the  person  spoken 
of.     The  singular  number  denotes  one,  the  plural  more 
than  one. 

in.    CASES.4 

45.  The  Latin  has  six  cases  : 

1  Except  names  of  persons. 

2  See  138,1. 

3  Gender  as  determined  by  the  endings  of  nouns  will  be  noticed  in  connection  with 
the  several  declensions. 

4  The  ca#e  of  a  noun  shows  the  relation  which  that  noun  sustains  to  other  words ;  as, 
John's  'book.    Here  the  possessive  case  (John's)  shows  that  John  sustains  to  the  book 
the  relation  of  possessor. 


DECLENSION.  23 

NAMES.  ENGLISH  EQUIVALENTS. 

Nominative,  Nominative. 

Genitive,  Possessive,  or  Objective  with  of. 

Dative,  Objective  with  to  or  for. 

Accusative,  Objective. 

Vocative,  Nominative  Independent. 

Ablative,  Objective  with/rom,  with,  by,  in. 

1.  OBLIQUE  CASES. — The   Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Ablative 
are  called  the  Oblique  Cases. 

2.  LOCATIVE. — The  Latin  has  also  a  few  remnants  of  another  case, 
called  the  Locative,  denoting  the  place  in  which. 

DECLENSION. 

46.  STEM  AND  SUFFIXES. — The  process  by  which  the 
several  cases  of  a  word  are  formed  is  called  Declension.     It 
consists  in  the  addition  of  certain  suffixes  to  one  common 
base  called  the  stem. 

1.  MEANING. — Accordingly,  each  case-form  contains  two  distinct  ele- 
ments— the  stem*  which  gives  the  general  meaning  of  the  word,  and  the 
case-suffix,  which  shows  the  relation  of  that  meaning  to  some  other  word. 
Thus,  in  reg-is,  of  a  king,  the  general  idea,  king,  is  denoted  by  the  stem 
reg  ;  the  relation  of,  by  the  suffix  is. 

2.  CASES  ALIKE. — But  certain  cases  are  not  distinguished  in  form. 

1)  The  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  in  Neuters  are  alike,  and 
in  the  plural  end  in  a. 

2)  The  Nominative  and  Vocative  are  alike,  except  in  the  singular  of 
nouns  in  us  of  the  second  declension  (51  ).2 

3)  The  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  are  alike. 

3.  CHARACTERISTIC. — The  last  letter  of  the  stem  is  called  the  STEM- 
CHARACTERISTIC,  or  the  STEM-ENDING. 

47.  FIVE  DECLENSIONS. — In  Latin  there  are  five  de- 
clensions, distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  stem-char- 
acteristics or  by  the  endings  of  the  Genitive  Singular,  as 
follows : 

1  Moreover,  in  many  words  the  stem  itself  is  derived  from  a  more  primitive  form 
called  a  Boot.    For  the  distinction  between  roots  and  stems,  and  for  the  manner  in 
which  the  latter  are  formed  from  the  former,  see  313-318. 

2  And  in  some  nouns  of  Greek  origin. 


24  FIRST  DECLENSION. 

CHARACTERISTICS.  GENITIVE  ENDINGS. 

DEC.    I.  a  ae 

II.  o  I 

III.  i  or  a  consonant  is 

IV  u  us 

V.  I  ft 

NOTE  1.— The  five  declensions  are  only  five  varieties  of  one  general  system  of  inflec- 
tion, as  the  case- suffixes  are  nearly  identical  in  all  nouns. 

NOTE  2.— But  these  case-suffixes  appear  distinct  and  unchanged  only  in  nouns  with 
consonant-stems,  while  in  all  others  they  are  seen  only  in  combination  with  the  charac- 
teristic, i.  e.,  with  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem. 

NOTE  8.— The  ending  produced  by  the  union  of  the  case-suffix  with  the  charac- 
teristic vowel  may  for  convenience  be  called  a  CASE-ENDING. 

FIRST   DECLENSION:    A   NOUNS. 
48.  Nouns  of  the  first  declension  end  in 

a  and  e— feminine  ;  as  and  es — masculine.1 
Nouns  in  a  are  declined  as  follows  : 


SINGULAR. 

EXAMPLE. 

MEANING. 

CASE-ENDING. 

Nom.  mensa, 

a  table? 

a3 

Gen.    mensae, 

of  a  table] 

ae 

Dat.    mensae, 

to,  for  a  table. 

ae 

Ace.    mensam, 

a  table, 

am 

Voc.    mensa, 

0  table, 

a 

Abl.     mensfl, 

from,  with,  by  a  table* 

1 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  mensae, 

tables, 

ae 

Gen.    mensarum, 

of  tables, 

Srum 

Dat.    mensls, 

to,  for  tables, 

ifr 

Ace.    mensas, 

tables, 

as 

Voc.    mensae, 

0  tables, 

ae 

Abl.     mensls, 

from,  with,  by  tables.4 

Is 

1  That  is,  nouns  of  this  declension  in  a  and  e  are  feminine,  and  those  in  as  and  es  are 
masculine. 

2  The  Nom.  mensa  may  be  translated  a  table,  table,  or  the  table  ;  see  48,  6. 

3  These  case-endings  will  serve  as  a  practical  guide  to  the  learner  in  distinguishing 
the  different  cases.    The  two  elements  which  originally  composed  them  have  undergone 
various  changes,  and  in  certain  cases  the  one  or  the  other  has  nearly  or  quite  disappeared. 
Thus  the  suffix  has  disappeared  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular,  and  appears 
only  as  e  in  four  other  case-forms,  while  the  characteristic  a  has  disappeared  in  the  ending 
?«,  contracted  from  a-ist  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural ;  see  33,  2,  note. 

4  Still  other  prepositions,  as  in,  on,  at,  are  sometimes  used  in  translating  the  Ablative. 


FIRST  DECLENSION.  25 

1.  STEM. — In  nouns  of  the  first  declension,  the  stem  ends  in  a. 

2.  In  the  PARADIGM,  observe  that  the  stem  is  mehsd,  and  that  the  sev- 
eral cases  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their  case-endings. 

3.  EXAMPLES  FOR  PRACTICE. — Like  mensa  decline : 

Ala,  wing ;  aqua,  water ;  causa,  cause  ;  fortuna,  fortune. 

4.  LOCATIVE. — Names  of  towns  and  a  very  few  other  words  have  a 
Locative  Singular1  in  ae,  denoting  the  place  in  which  (45,  2),  and  are 
declined  in  the  singular 2  number  as  follows : 

Norn.  Roma,  Rome,  militia,  war* 

Gen.  Romae,  of  Rome,  mllitiae,  of  war, 

Dot.  Romae,  for  Rome?  mllitiae,  for  war, 

Ace.  Romam,           Rome,  mllitiam,  war, 

Voc.  Roma,  0  Rome,  militia,  0  war, 

All.  Roma,      from  Rome*  militia,     from  war, 

Loc.  Romae,  at  Rome.  mllitiae,  in  war. 

6.  EXCEPTIONS  IN  GENDER. — 1.  A  few  nouns  in  a  are  masculine  by 
signification :  agricola,  husbandman  ;  see  42, 1. — 2.  Hadria,  Adriatic  Sea, 
is  masculine ;  sometimes  also  ddmma,  deer,  and  talpa,  mole. 

6.  ARTICLE.— The  Latin  has  no  article:  corona,  crown,  a  crown,  the 
crown  ;  ala,  wing,  a  wing,  the  wing. 

49.  IRREGULAR  CASE-ENDINGS. — The  following  occur : 4 

1.  as  in  the  Genitive  of  familia,  in  composition  with  pater,  mater, 
fllius,  and  filia :  paterfamilias,  father  of  a  family. 

2.  ai,  an  old  form  for  the  Genitive  ending  ae,  in  the  poets : 6  aulal,  af- 
terward aulae,  of  a  hall. 

3.  um6  in  the  Genitive  Plural:   Dardanidum  for  Dardanidarum,  of 
the  descendants  of  Dardanus. 

4.  abus  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural,  especially  in  dea,  goddess, 
and/ifc'a,  daughter,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  same  cases  of  deus,  god, 
and  fllius,  son:  deabus  for  dels,  to  goddesses. 

1  In  the  Plural  of  all  nouns  the  Locative  meaning  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative :  Athenls, 
at  Athens.    Whether,  however,  the  form  Athenis  is  in  origin  a  Locative,  an  Ablative,  or 
neither,  is  a  disputed  question.    See  Bopp,  I.,  pp.  484  seq. ;  Schleicher,  pp.  586,  587; 
Penka,  p.  194;  Delbruck,  p.  2T;  Merguet,  pp.  116,  117;  Wordsworth,  p.  59.    In  most 
nouns  the  Locative  meaning  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  in  both  numbers. 

2  The  Plural  when  used  is  like  the  Plural  of  mensa. 

3  For  the  other  prepositions  which  may  be  used  in  translating  the  Dative  and  the 
Ablative,  see  45.    Militia,  war,  warfare,  military  service. 

4  To  these  must  be  added  for  early  Latin  d  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  and  cid  in 
the  Abl.  Sing. ;  see  21,  2, 1),  and  36,  5,  2). 

6  Also  in  inscriptions  as  the  ending  of  the  Genitive,  Dative,  and  Locative. 
6  Contracted  from  a-um  like  the  Greek  <£-«»>,  S>v. 


26  SECOND  DECLENSION. 

NOTB.— Nouns  in  ia  sometimes  have  Is  for  Us  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural: 
gratis  for  grdtils,  from  gratia,  favor,  kindness. 

50.  GREEK  NOUNS. — Nouns  of  this  declension  in  e,  5s, 
and  es  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  declined  as  follows  : 

Epitome,  epitome.         Aeneas,  Aeneas.  Pyrites, 


SINGULAR. 

Nom.  epitome 

Aeneas 

pyrites 

Gen.    epitomes 

Aeneae 

pyrltae 

Dal.    epitomae 

Aeneae 

pyritae 

Ace.     epitome"  n 

Aeneam,  an 

pyrltfcn 

Voc.    epitome1 

Aenca 

pyrite,  a 

Abl.     epitomC  Aenea  pyrite, 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  epitomae  pyritae 

Gen.  epitomarum  pyritarwm 

Dot.    epitomls  pyritls 

Ace.  epitomas  pyrltas 

Voc.  epitomae  pyritae 

All.     epitomls  pyritls 

NOTE  1.— In  the  Plural  and  in  the  Dative  Singular,  Greek  nouns  are  declined  like 
mensa. 

NOTE  2.— In  nouns  in  e  and  es,  the  stem-ending  a  is  changed  to  e  in  certain  cases. 

NOTE  3. — Many  Greek  nouns  assume  the  Latin  ending  a,  and  are  declined  like  mensa. 
Many  in  e  have  also  a  form  in  a :  epitome,  epitoma,  epitome. 

SECOND  DECLENSION:  O  NOUNS. 
51.  Nouns  of  the  second  declension  end  in 
er,  ir,  us,  and  os  * — masculine  ;  um,  and  on — neuter. 
Nouns  in  er,  ir,  us,  and  um  are  declined  as  follows  : 
Servus,3  slave.      Puer,  loy.       Ager,  field.     Templum,  temple, 
SINGULAR. 


Nom.  servus3 

puer 

ager 

templum 

Gen.    servl 

puerl 

agrl 

templl 

Dai.     servo 

puero 

agro 

templo 

Ace.     serviim 

puerum 

agrum 

templum 

Voc.     serve 

puer 

ager 

templnmL 

All.     servo 

puer5 

agr6 

templo 

1  Sometimes  os. 

2  Sometimes  written  servos  ;  see  52, 1. 

3  In  the  Boman  and  in  the  Continental  pronunciation,  quantity  furnishes  a  safe  guide 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 


Nom.  servl 

puerX 

agrS 

templa 

Gen.  servomm 

puerorum 

agrornm 

templOrum 

Dat.    servls 

puerls 

agris 

templls 

Ace.    servos 

pueros 

agros 

templa 

Voc.   servl 

puerl 

agri 

templa 

Abl    servls 

puerls 

agris 

templls 

1.  STEM. — In  nouns  of  the  second  declension,  the  stem  ends  in  o. 

2.  In  the  PARADIGMS,  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  servo,  puero,  agro,  and  templo. 

2)  That  the  characteristic  o  becomes  u  in  the  endings  us  and  im,  and  e 
in  serve,1  that  it  disappears  by  contraction  in  the  endings  a,2  I,  and  is  (for  o-a, 
<?-*,  and  o-is)*  and  is  dropped  in  the  forms  puer  and  ager. 

3)  That  the  case-endings,  including  the  characteristic  o  (47,  N.  2),  are  as 
follows : 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

MASO. 

NETJT. 

MASC. 

NEUT. 

Nom.   us  4 

um 

Nom.   1 

a 

Gem.    1 

I 

Gen.    orum 

orum 

Dat.     6 

0 

Dat.     is 

is 

Ace.     urn 

um 

Ace.     os 

a 

Voc.     e  4 

um 

Voc.     I 

a 

Abl.     0 

6 

Abl.     Is 

Is 

4)  That  puer  and  «0w  differ  in  declension  from  servus  in  dropping  the 
endings  us  and  e  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative :  Nom.  puer  for  puerus^ 
Voc.  J9W6T  for  puere. 

5)  That  e  in  a^r  is  developed  by  the  final  r.& 

6)  That  templum,  as  a  neuter  noun,  has  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and 
Vocative  alike,  ending  in  the  plural  in  a  ;  see  46,  2, 1). 

3.  EXAMPLES  FOR  PRACTICE. — Like  SERVUS  :  dominus,  master.  Like 
PUER:  gener,  son-in-law.  Like  AGER:  magister,  master.  Like  TEMPLUM: 
bellum,  war. 

to  the  sounds  of  the  vowels ;  see  5.  In  the  English  method,  on  the  contrary,  the  quan- 
tity of  the  vowels  is  entirely  disregarded,  except  as  it  affects  the  accent  of  the  word. 
Thus,  a  in  ager  is  short  in  quantity,  but  long  in  sound  (1O,  3),  while  I  in  servls,  puerw, 
agris,  and  templls  is  long  in  quantity  but  short  in  sound  (11, 1).  Accordingly,  in  this 
method,  the  sounds  of  the  vowels  must  be  determined  by  the  rules  given  in  9,  1O 
and  11.  Moreover,  the  learner  must  not  forget  that  when  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  is 
known,  the  quantity  of  the  syllable,  as  used  in  poetry,  is  readily  determined  by  article  16: 

1  See  22  and  24, 1,  note. 

2  Shortened  from  a;  see  21,  2, 1). 
8  See  23,  note,  and  27. 

4  The  endings  of  the  Norn,  and  Yoc.  Sing,  are  wanting  in  nouns  in  $r, 
«  See  29,  note, 


28  SECOND  DECLENSION. 

4.  NOUNS  IN  er  AND  ir. — Most  nouns  in  er  are  declined  like  ager,  but 
the  following  in  er  and  ir  are  declined  like  puer : 

1)  Nouns  in  ir :  vir,  xirl,  man. 

2)  Compounds  infer  and  ger  :  armiger,  armigerl,  armor-bearer ;  stynifer* 
slgniferi,  standard-bearer. 

3)  Adulter,  adulterer ;    Celtiber*  Celtiberian ;  gener,  son-in-law  ;  Iber,* 
Spaniard;  Liber,  Bacchus;   Uberl,   children;  Mulciber*  Vulcan;  presbyter, 
elder ;  socer,  father-in-law ;  vesper,  evening. 

5.  Nouns  in  ius  generally  contract  ii  in  the  Genitive  Singular  and  ie 
in  the  Vocative  Singular  into  I  without  change  of  accent :   Claudl  for 
Claudii,  of  Claudius,  fill  for  filii,  of  a  son ;  Mercu'ri  for  Mercu'rie,  Mer- 
cury, fill  for  filie,  son.2     In  the  Genitive  Singular  of  nouns  in  ium  the 
same  contraction  takes  place:  inge'ni  for  inge'nil,  of  talent;  see  18,  1. 

6.  DEUS  is  thus  declined :  Sing,  deus,  del,  deo,  deum,  deus,  deo :  Plur.  N. 
and  V.  dei,  dil,  dl;3  G.  deorum,  deum;  D.  and  A.  dels,  dils,  dls;*  Ace.  deos. 

7.  NEUTERS  IN  us. — The  three  neuter  nouns  in  usfpelagus,  sea,  virus,  poi- 
son, and  vulgus,  the  common  people,  are  declined  in  the  singular  as  follows : 

Rom.,  Ace.,  Voc.   pelagus  virus  vulgus6 

G-en.  pelagl  vlrl  vulgl 

Dat.,  Abl.  pelago  vlro  vulgo 

NOTE. — Pelagus  is  a  Greek  noun  (54,  N.  2),  and  in  general  is  used  only  in  the  singu- 
lar, though  pelage  occurs  as  an  Ace.  Plur.  Virus  and  vulgus  are  used  only  in  the 
singular.  Vulgus  has  a  masculine  Ace.,  vulgum,  in  addition  to  the  neuter  form  vulgus. 

8.  LOCATIVE. — Names  of  towns  and  a  few  other  words  have  a  Locative 
Singular6  in  i,  denoting  the  place  in  which  (45,  2),  and  are  declined  in  the 
singular 7  number  as  follows : 

Norn.  Ephesws,          Ephesus,  bellum,  war, 

Gen.  EphesI,         of  Ephcsus,  belli,  of  war, 

Dat.  Epheso,      for  Ephesus,  bellO,  for  war, 

Ace.  Ephesmn,        Ephesus,  bellum,  war, 

Voc.  Ephese,         0  Ephesus,  bellum,  0  war, 

Abl.  Epheso,  from  Ephesus,  bello,  from,  by  war, 

Loc.  EphesI,          at  Ephesus.  belli,  in  war. 

1  Celtiber  and  Iber  have  e  long  in  the  Gen.,  and  3fulciber  sometimes  drops  e. 

2  Nouns  in  eius  sometimes  contract  eie  in  the  Yoc.  Sing,  into  ei;  Pompel  or  Pom- 
pei,  Fompey. 

3  Dl  and  dls  are  the  approved  forms,  but  del,  dil  and  dels,  dils  also  occur. 

4  Originally  s-stems  which  by  the  loss  of  s  in  the  oblique  cases  have  become  o-stems; 
see  62, 1.,  1,  foot-note. 

6  Also  written  volgu*. 

6  In  the  Plural  the  Locative  meaning  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative:  Gabiu,  at  Gabii; 
see  48,  4,  foot-note. 

7  The  Plural,  when  used,  is  like  the  Plural  of  servus,  puer,  etc. 


SECOND  DECLENSION.  29 

52.  IRREGULAR  CASE-ENDINGS.  —  The  following  occur  :  l 

1.  os  and  om,  old  endings  for  us  and  um,  sometimes  used  after  v  and 
w;2  servos  for  servus,  servom  forservum  ;  mortuos  for  mortuus,  dead. 

2.  us  for  e  in  the  Vocative  of  deus,  god  ;  rare  in  other  words. 

3.  urn  in  the  Genitive  Plural,  especially  common  in  a  few  words  de- 
noting money,  weight,  and  measure  :  talcntum  for  talentorum,  of  talents  ; 
also  in  a  few  other  words  :  deum  for  deorum  ;  liberum  for  llberoruw  ; 
Argivum  for  Argivorum. 

NOTE.—  The  ending  um  occurs  also  in  the  Genitive  Plural  of  many  other  words, 
especially  in  poetry. 

53.  GENDER.  —  Nouns  in  er,  ir,  us,  and  os  are  masculine,  those  in  um 
and  on  are  neuter  ;  except  — 

1.  The  Feminines:  —  (1)  See  42,  II.,  but  observe  that  many  names  of 
countries,  towns,  islands,  and  trees  follow  the  gender  of  their  endings.     (2) 
Most  names  of  gems  and  ships  are  feminine  :  also  alvus,  belly  ;  carbasus,  sail  ; 
cvtus,  distaff;  humus,  ground;  vannus,  sieve.     (3)  A  few  Greek  feminines. 

2.  The  Neuters:—  pelagus,  sea;  virus,  poison;  vulgus,  common  people. 
For  declension,  see  51,  7. 

54.  GREEK  NOUNS.  —  Nouns  of  this  declension  in  os,  6s, 
and  on  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  declined  in  the  singu- 
lar as  follows  : 

Delos,  F.  ,  3  Delos.         Androgeos,  Androgeos.    Ilion,  Ilium. 

Norn.  Delos  Androgeos  Ilion 

Gen.  Dell  Androgeo,  I  Ilil 

Dat.  Delo  Androgeo  Ilio 

Ace.  Delon  Androgeon,  o  Ilion 

Voc.  Dele  Androgeos  Ilion 

All  Delo  Androgeo  Ilio 


1.—  The  Plural  of  nouns  in  os  and  on  is  generally  regular,  but  certain  Greek 
endings  occur,  as  oe  in  the  Nominative  Plural,  and  on  in  the  Genitive. 

NOTE  2.—  Most  Greek  nouns  generally  assume  the  Latin  forms  in  us  and  um,  and  are 
declined  like  servus  and  templum.  Many  in  os  or  on  have  also  a  form  in  us  or  um. 

NOTE  3.—  For  Greek  nouns  in  ens,  see  68  and  68,  1. 

NOTE  4.—Panthits  has  Yoc.  Panthu.    For  pelagus,  see  51,  7,  note. 

1  To  these  must  be  added  for  early  Latin:  1)  od  in  Abl.  Sing.,  and  d  in  Nom.,  Ace., 
and  Yoc.  of  the  Neut.  Plur.  ;  see  36,  5,  2),  and  31,  2,  1)  ;  2)  oe  in  Gen.  Sing.  ;  oe,  e,  es, 
eis,  and  ?s  in  Nom.  Plur.  :  poploe=popM\l;  ploirume=p]uiiml;  iuWs=viri;  leibereis  or 


2  Some  recent  editors  have  adopted  vos,  uos,  torn  and  worn,  for  rus,  uus,  vutn  and 
uum,  but  the  wisdom  of  such  a  course  is  at  least  questionable.    See  Brambach,  p.  3. 

3  M.  stands  for  masculine,  F.  for  feminine,  and  N.  for  neuter. 


30  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

THIRD  DECLENSION:    CONSONANT  AND  I  NOUNS. 

55.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  end  in 

a,  e,  I,  6,  y,  c,  1,  n,  r,  s,  t,  and  x. 

56.  Nouns  of  this  declension  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes  : 

I.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  a  Consonant. 

II.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  I.1 

CLASS    I— CONSONANT    STEMS. 

57.  STEMS  ENDING  IN  A  LABIAL:  B  OR  P. 

Princeps,  M.,2  a  leader,  chief. 

SINGULAR.  CASE-SUFFIXES 

Nom.  princeps,  a  leader,  a 

Gen.  principis,  of  a  leader  ,  is 

Dat.  principl,  to,  for  a  leader,  I 

Ace.  prmcipem,  a  leader,  em 

Voc.  princeps,  0  leader,  s 

A  bl.  principe,  *  from,  with,  by  a  leader,  e 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  prlncipes,  leaders,  es 

Gen.  principum,  of  leaders,  um 

Dat.  prmcipilms,  to,  for  leaders,  ibus 

Ace.  prlncipes,  leaders,  es 

Voc.  prlncipes,  0  leaders,  es 

Abl.  principibus,  from,  ivith,  by  leader's.  ibus 

1.  STEM  AND  CASE-SUFFIXES. — In  this  Paradigm  observe — 

1)  That  the  stem  is  prlncep,  modified  before  an  additional  syllable  to 
prlneip  ;  see  23, 1,  and  57,  2. 

2)  That  the  case-suffixes  appear  distinct  and  separate  from  the  stem ; 3  see 
46, 1,  and  4  7,  note  2. 

2.  VARIABLE  VOWEL. — In  the  final  syllable  of  dissyllabic  consonant 
stems,  short  e  or  i  generally  takes  the  form  of  e  in  the  Nominative  and 
Vocative  Singular  and  that  of  i  in  all  the  other  cases.     Thus  princeps, 

1  For  Gender,  see  99-115. 

2  See  foot-note  8,  p.  29. 

8  Thus,  princep-s,  prlncip-is,  etc.  In  the  first  and  second  declensions,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  suffix  can  not  be  separated  from  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem  In  such  forms  as 
mentis,  piierl,  agrts,  etc. 


DECLENSION. 


principis,1  and  judex,  judicis  (59),  alike  have  e  in  the  Nominative  and 
Vocative  Singular  and  i  in  all  the  other  cases,  though  in  prlnceps  the 
original  form  of  the  radical  vowel  is  e,  and  in  judex,  i.  For  a  similar 
change  in  the  vowel  of  the  stem,  see  miles,  militis  (58),  and  carmen,  car- 
minis9  (60).  See  also  opus,  operis  (61). 

3.  In  monosyllables  in  bs  the  stem  ends  in  i ;  see  whs,  64. 

4.  For  the  LOCATIVE  IN  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION,  see  66,  4. 

5.  For  SYNOPSIS  OF  DECLENSION,  see  87,  89. 


58.  STEMS  EKDIKG  IN  A  DEKTAL  : 


Lapis,  M.,  stone. 

Nom.  lapis 

Gen.  lapidis 

Dat.  lapidl 

Ace.  lapidem 

Voc.  lapis 

Abl.  lapide 

Nom.  lapides 

Gen.  lapidum. 

Dat.  lapidibiis 

Ace.  lapides 

Voc.  lapides 

Abl,  lapidibiis 


Aetas,  F.,  04 

SINGULAR. 

aetas 

aetatis 

aetatl 

aetatem 

aetas 

aetate 

PLURAL. 
aetates 
aetatum 
aetatilms 
aetat^s 
aetates 
aetatilms 


D  OB  T. 

Miles,  M.,  soldier. 

miles 

militis 

mllitl 

mllitem 

miles 

mllite 

mllites 

militum 

mllitibus 

mllites 

mllites 

militibus 


Kepos,  M.,  grandson.     Virtus,  F.,  virtue.     Caput,  N.,head. 

STVfiHT.AP. 


SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

nepos 

virtus 

caput 

Gen. 

nepotis 

virtutis 

capitis 

Dat. 

nepotl 

virtutl 

capitl 

Ace. 

nepotem 

virtutent 

caput 

Voc. 

nepos 

virtus 

caput 

Abl. 

nepote 

virtute 

capite 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

nepotes 

virtutes 

capita, 

Gen. 

ncpotiim 

virtutum 

capitmii 

Dat. 

nepotibiis 

virtutibits 

capitibus 

1  See  22,  1. 

2  See  33, 

1,  foot-note. 

32 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


Ace.  nepotes 
Vbc.  nepotes 
Abl.  nepotlfous 


virtutes 
virtutes 
virtutlbus 


capita/ 
capita 

capitilms 


1.  STEMS  AND  CASE-SUFFIXES. — In  these  Paradigms  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  lapid,  aetdt,  mllit,  nepot,  virtut,  and  caput. 

2)  That  miles  has  the  variable  vowel,  e,  i,  and  caput,  u,  i;  see  57,  2. 

.       3)  That  the  dental  d  or  t  is  dropped  before  s  :  lapis  for  lapids,  aetds  for 
aetdts,  miles  for  milets,  virtus  for  virtuts  /  see  36,  2. 

4)  That  the  case-suffixes,  except  in  the  neuter,  caput  (46,  2),  are  the  same 
as  those  given  above  ;  see  57. 

5)  That  the  neuter,  caput,  has  no  case-suffix  in  the  Nominative,  Accusa- 
tive, and  Vocative  Singular,  a  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative 
Plural,  and  the  suffixes  of  masculine  and  feminine  nouns  in  the  other  cases. 

2.  NEUTER  STEMS  IN  at  drop  t  in  the  Nominative  Singular  and  end  in  a : 
Nom.,  poema,  QQn.,poematis ;  Stem,  poemat.    These  nouns  sometimes  have 
w  for  ibus  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural :  poematls  for  poematibus. 

3.  For  SYNOPSIS  OF  DECLENSION,  see  69,  78-84. 

59.  STEMS  ENDING  IN  A  GUTTURAL  :  c  OR  G. 

Rex,  M.,         Judex,  M.  &  F.,  Radix,  F.,        Dux,  M.  &F., 


Icing. 

Nom.  rex 
Gen.    regis 
Dat.    regl 
Ace. 
Voc. 


Abl. 


regem 

rex 

rege 


Nom.  reges 
Gen.    regum 


Dat 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 


reglfous 
reges 
reges 
regilms 


judge. 

root. 

SINGULAR. 

judex 

radix 

judicis 

radlcis 

judicl 

radicl 

judicem 

radlcem 

judex 

radix 

judice 

radice 

PLURAL. 

judices 

radices 

judicum 

radicum 

judicibiis 

radlcilms 

judices 

radices 

judices 

radices 

judicibiis 

radiclbiis 

leader. 

dux 

ducis 

duel 

ducem 

dux 

duce 

duces 
ducuni 


duces 
duces 
ducibws 


1.  STEMS  AND  CASE-SUFFIXES. — In  the  Paradigms  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  arc  reg,judic,  radio,  and  due;  judic  with  the  variable 
vowel,  i,  e  ;  see  57,  2. 

2)  That  the  case-suffixes  are  those  given  in  57. 

3)  That  s  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  unites  with  c  or  g  of 
the  stem  and  forms  x  ;  see  30. 

2.  For  SYNOPSIS  OF  DECLENSION,  see  NOUNS  IN  x,  91-98. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


60.  STEMS  EKDIKG  IK  L,  M,  N,  OR  R. 


33 


Sol,  M., 

Consul,  M., 

Passer,  M., 

Pater,  M., 

sun. 

consul. 

sparrow. 

father. 

SINGULAR. 

Norn,  sol 

consul 

passer 

pater 

Gen.    soils 

consulis 

passeris 

patris 

Dat.     soli 

consul! 

passerl 

patrl 

Ace.     solem 

consulem 

passerem 

patrem 

Voc.    sol 

consul 

passer 

pater 

All.     sole 

consule 

passere 

patre 

PLURAL. 

Norn,  soles1 

consults 

passeres 

patres 

Gen. 

consulnm 

passernm 

patrnm 

Dat.     solibus 

consulitms 

passerilms 

patrilms 

Ace.     soles 

consules 

passeres 

patres 

Voc.     sol€s 

consules 

passeres 

patres 

All     solibus 

consulibus 

passerilms 

patrilms 

Pastor,  M., 

Leo,  M., 

Virgo,  p., 

Carmen,  N., 

shepherd. 

lion. 

maiden. 

song. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.   pastor 

leS 

virgo 

carmen 

Gen.     pastoris 

leonis 

virginis 

carminis. 

Dat.     pastorl 

leonl 

virginl 

carmini 

Ace.     pastorem 

leonem 

virginem 

carmen 

Voc.     pastor 

Ie5 

virgo 

carmen 

Abl.     pastore 

leone 

virgine 

carmine 

PLURAL. 

Nom.   pastores 

Isones 

virgines 

carmina, 

Gen.    pastontm 

leonuni 

virginum 

carminitm 

Dai.     pastoribus 

leonlbus 

virginil>iis 

carniinilms 

Ace.     pastores 

leones 

virgines 

carmina 

Voc.     pastores 

leones 

virgines 

carmina 

Abl.     pastorilms 

leonibus 

virginilms 

carminibus 

1.  STEMS  AND  CASE-SUFFIXES.  —  In  the  Paradigms  observe  — 

1)  That  the  stems 

are  sol^  consul,  passer,  pair  ?  pastor,  I 

'eon,  mrgon,  and 

carmen. 

1  Many  monosyllables  want  the  Gen.  Plur. ;  see  133,  5. 

2  That  is,  the  stem  is  pair  when  followed  by  a  vowel ;  but  when  r  becomes  final,  it 
develops  e  before  it,  and  patr  becomes  pater  ;  see  £9,  note. 

3 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


2)  That  virg5  (virgon)  has  the  variable  vowel,  o,  i,  and  carmen,  e,  i. 

3)  That  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  s,  the  usual  case-suffix 
for  masculine  and  feminine  nouns,  is  omitted,  and  that  in  those  cases  the  stem 
pastor  shortens  o,  while  leon  and  virgon  drop  n ;  see  21,  2,  2),  and  36,  5,  3). 

2.  HIEMS,  the  only  stem  in  m,  takes  s  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative 
Singular.    Also  sanguis  (for  sangulns},  blood,  and  Salamls  (for  Salamins), 
Salamis,  which  drop  n  before  s;  see  36,  3,  note  3. 

3.  PASSER,  PATER. — Most  nouns  in  er  are  declined  like  passer,  but  those 
in  ter,  and  a  few  others,  are  declined  like  pater  ;  see  77,  2. 

4.  LEO,  VIRGO. — Most  nouns  in  o  are  declined  like  led,  but  those  in  do 
and  go,  with  a  few  others,  are  declined  like  mrgb  ;  see  73,  with  exceptions. 

5.  FOUR  STEMS  IN  or  change  o  to  u  ;  see  77,  4. 

6.  For  the  LOCATIVE  IN  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION,  see  66,  4. 

7.  For  SYNOPSIS  OF  DECLENSION,  see  72,  75-77. 


61.  STEMS  ENDING  IN  s. 


Flos,  M., 
flower. 


Jus,  N 
right. 


Opus, 
work. 


Corpus,  N., 
l)ody. 


SINGULAR. 


Nom. 

flos 

jus 

opus 

corpus 

Gen. 

floris 

juris 

operis 

corporis 

Dot. 

florl 

jurl 

operi 

corporl 

Ace. 

florem 

jus 

opus 

corpus 

Voc. 

flos 

jus 

opus 

corpus 

Abl. 

flore 

jure 

opere 

corpore 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

floras 

jura 

opera 

corpora 

Gen. 

floritm 

juriiin 

opernm 

corpornm 

Dot. 

florilms 

jurifous 

operifous 

corporlbiis, 

Ace. 

flores 

jura 

opera 

corpora 

Voc. 

flores 

jura 

opera 

corpora 

Abl 

florilms 

juribus 

operibus 

corporibiis 

1.  STEMS  AND  CASE-SUFFIXES. — In  the  Paradigms  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  fids,  jus,  opos*  and  corpos. 

2)  That  opus  has  the  variable  vowel,  e,  u,  and  corpus,  o,  u. 

3)  That  s  of  the  stem  becomes  r  between  two  vowels :  fids,  fldris  (for 
/  see  31,  1. 

4)  That  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  omit  the  case-suffix ;  see  60,  1,  3). 

2.  For  SYNOPSIS  OF  DECLENSION,  see  79,  80,  83-84. 

1  Opos  occurs  in  early  Latin.  In  os,  from  the  Primary  Suffix  as  (320),  o  was  weak- 
ened to  u  in  the  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Yoc.  Sing,  of  opus  and  corpus,  while  in  all  the  other 
case-forms  it  was  weakened  to  e  in  opus,  but  retained  unchanged  in  corpus;  see  22. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


35 


CLASS    II.  —  I    STEMS.    . 

62.  STEMS  ENDHSTG  IK  I.  —  Nouns  in  is  and  es,  not 

increasing  in  the  Genitive.  l 
Tussis,  F.  ,     Tunis,  F.  ,     Ignis,  M.  ,     Hostis,  M.  &  F.  ,  Nubes,  2  F.  , 
cough.            tower.           fire.            enemy.                 cloud. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

tussis 

turris 

ignis 

hostis 

nubes 

Gen. 

tussis 

turris 

ignis 

hostis 

nubis 

Dat. 

tussl 

turrl 

ignl 

hostl 

nubi 

Ace. 

tussim 

tunlm.  cm 

ignem 

hostem 

nubem 

Voc. 

tussis 

turris 

ignis 

hostis 

nubes 

Abl 

tussl 

turrl,  e 

ignl,  e 

hoste 

nube 

PLURAL. 

Worn. 

tusses 

turres 

ignes 

hostes 

nubes 

Gen. 

tussium 

turrium 

•  ignium 

hostium 

nubium 

Dat. 

tussibus 

turribus 

ignibus 

hostibus 

nubibus 

Ace. 

tusses,  Is 

turres,  Is 

ignes,  Is 

hostes,  is 

nubes,  is 

Voc 

tusses 

turres 

ignes 

hostes 

nubes 

Abl. 

tussibus 

turribus 

ignilms 

hostibus 

nubibus 

I.  PARADIGMS.  —  Observe  — 

1.  That  the  stems  are  tussi,  turri,  igni,  hosti,  and  nubi.* 

2.  That  the  case-endings,  including  the  characteristic  i,  which  disappears 
in  certain  cases,  are  as  follows  : 


SINGULAR. 

.                PLURAL. 

Nom.    is,  es 

es 

Gen.    is 

ium 

Dat.     1 

ibus 

Ace.     im,  em 

es,  is 

Voc.     is 

es 

Abl.     1,  e 

ibus 

1  That  is,  having  as  many  syllables  in  the  Nom.  Sing,  as  in  the  Gen.  Sing. 

2  Observe  (1)  that  tussis,  turris,  ignis,  and  hostis  differ  in  declension  only  in  the  Ace. 
and  Abl.  Sing.,  tussis  showing  the  final  i  of  the  stem  in  both  those  cases,  turris  some- 
times in  both,  ignis  sometimes  in  the  Abl.,  not  in  the  Ace.,  Jiostis  in  neither    (2)  that  mWes 
differs  from  the  other  four  in  taking  es  instead  of  is  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing. 

3  Nouns  in  es,  Gen.  is,  are  best  treated  as  t-stems,  although  some  of  them  were 
originally  «-stems  (61).    Thus,  originally  the  stem  of  nubes  was  itself  niibes,  but  s  was 
finally  treated  as  the  Nom.  suffix,  and  the  word  was  accordingly  declined  like  the  large 
class  of  i-nouns  mentioned  under  63,  Y.    The  origin  of  i-stems  is  obscure.    A  few  cor- 
respond to  t-stems  in  the  cognate  tongues,  as  ignis,  ovis,  turris  ;  a  few  are  weakened 
from  a-stems  or  o-stems,  as  foris,  a  door,  Gr.  Qvpa,  imber=irribris,  rain-storm,  Gr. 
6/x/3pos  ,-  some  are  formed  from  s-stems,  as  nubes,  just  mentioned.     Upon  the  general 
subject  of  t-stems,  see  Eoby,  pp.  136-149  ;  Schleicher,  pp.  884,  432,  453  ;  Corssen,  I.  281, 
571,  T38  seq.  ;  II.  22T;  Merguet,  pp.  36-40,  51,  67,  95,  etc. 


36  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

II.  Like  TUSSIS— Ace.  im,  ABL.  I— are  declined — 

1.  Jfaris,  plough-tail ;  ravis,  hoarseness  ;  sitis,  thirst. 

2.  In  the  Singular:  (1)  Names  of  rivers  and  places  in  is  not  increasing  in 
the  Genitive:  Tiberis,  Hispalis  ;  see  583.    (2)  Greek  nouns  in  is,  Gen.  &, 
and  some  others. 

III.  Like  TURRIS — Ace.  im,  em,  ABL.  I,  e — are  declined — 

Cldvis,  key;  febris,  fever;  messis,  harvest;  navis,  ship;  puppis,  stern; 
restis,  rope ;  securis,  axe  ;  sementis,  sowing ;  strigilis,  strigil. 

1.  Araris,  or  Arar  (for  Araris),1  the  Saone,  and  Liger  (for  Ligeris)^  the 
Loire,  have  Ace.  im,  em,  Abl.  I,  e. 

IV.  Like  IGNIS — Ace.  em,  ABL.  1,  e — are  declined — 

Amnis,  river ;  anguis,  serpent ;  avis,  bird ;  Mlis,  bile ;  civis,  citizen ; 
cldssis,  fleet ;  collis,  hill ;  finis y  end ;  orHs,  circle  ;  postis,  post ;  unguis,  nail, 
and  a  few  others. 

NOTE  1.— Adjectives  in  er  (for  ris)  and  those  in  is  have  the  Ablative  in  1  (153, 
154).  Accordingly,  when  such  adjectives  are  used  substantively,  the  I  is  generally  re- 
tained :  September,  Septembrl,  September;  2  familiar is, familidrl,  friend.  But  adjec- 
tives used  as  proper  names  have  e  :  Juvendlis,  Juvendle,  Juvenal. 

NOTE  2. — Imber  (for  imbris),  storm ;  vesper  (for  vesper  is),  evening,  and  a  few  others, 
sometimes  have  the  Ablative  in  I. 

V.  Like  HOSTIS — Ace.  em,  ABL.  e — are  declined  all  nouns  in  isy  Gen. 
ts,  not  provided  for  under  II.,  III.,  and  IV.3 

VI.  Like  NUBES  are  declined  all  nouns  in  es,  Gen.  is.4 

63.  STEMS  EKDISTG  IK  I. — Neuters  in  e,  al,  and  ar. 

Mare,  sea.        Animal,  animal.        Calcar,  spur. 


SINGULAR. 

CASE-ENDINGS. 

Nom.  mare 

animal 

calcar 

e—6 

Gen.    maris 

animalis 

calcaris 

is 

Dai.     marl 

animal! 

calcar! 

I 

Ace.    mare 

animal 

calcar 

e—  • 

Voc.    mare 

animal 

calcar 

e—  6 

Abl.     marl  5 

animal! 

calcar! 

I 

1  The  shortening  of  Araris  to  Arar  and  of  Ligeris  to  Liger  is  similar  to  the  short- 
ening ofpuerm  to  puer  ;  see  51,  2,  4) ;  36,  5,  2),  note. 

2  Names  of  months  are  adjectives  used  substantively.    Originally  mensis,  month,  \vas 
understood. 

3  Except  canis  sm&juvenis,  which  are  consonant-stems,  but  have  assumed  i  in  the 
Norn.  Sing.    In  the  plural  they  have  um  in  the  Gen.  and  es  in  the  Ace.    Apis,  mensis, 
and  volueris  often  have  um  for  ium  in  the  Gen. 

4  Except  struts  and  vdtes,  which  generally  have  um  in  Gen.  PI.,  and  sedts,  which  has 
um  or  ium.    Compes,  Gen.  edis,  has  also  ium. 

5  See  2  below. 

6  The  dash  here  implies  that  the  case-ending  is  sometimes  wanting. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


PLURAL. 

Nom.  maria 

animalia 

calcaria 

ia 

Gen.    mariiim 

animuliiiiM 

calcariuiwi 

ium 

Dot.     marilms 

animalilrns 

calcarilms 

ibus 

Ace.     maria 

animalia 

calcaria 

ia 

Voc.     maria 

animalia 

calearia 

ia 

Abl.     marilms 

animalilrns 

calcaribus 

ibus 

1.  PARADIGMS. — Observe — 

1)  That  the  stem-ending  i  is  changed  to  e  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative, 
and  Vocative  Singular  of  mare,  and  dropped  in  the  same  cases  of  animal  (for 
animate)  and  calcar  (for  calcdre) ;  see  24,  1,  note ;  37 ;  31,  2,  2). 

2)  That  the  case-endings  include  the  characteristic  i. 

2.  The  following  have  e  in  the  Ablative  Singular : — (1)  Names  of  towns 
in  e  ;  Praeneste. — (2)  Generally  rete,  net,  and  in  poetry  sometimes  mare. 

NOTE.— Neuters  in  ar,  with  a  short  in  the  Genitive,  are  consonant-stems :  nectar, 
nectaris,  nectar;  also  sal,  salt,  and/a/*,  corn. 

64.  STEMS  ENDING  IN  I. — Nouns  in  s  and  x  generally 
preceded  ly  a  consonant. 


Cliens,  M.  &F.,  Urbs,  F., 

Arx,  F., 

Mus,1  M., 

client. 

city. 

citadel. 

mouse. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

cliens 

urbs 

arx3 

mus 

Gen. 

clientis  2 

urbis 

arcis 

muris  4 

Dat. 

client! 

urbl 

arcl 

murl 

Ace. 

clientem 

urbein 

arcem 

murem 

Voc. 

cliens 

urbs 

arx 

mus 

Abl. 

cliente 

urbe 

arce 

mure 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

clientes 

urbes 

arces 

mures 

Gen. 

clientiiim 

urbium 

arcium 

muilum 

Dat. 

clientilms 

urbilms 

arcilms 

muribus 

Ace. 

clientes,  Is 

urbes,  Is 

arces,  Is 

mures,  Is 

Voc. 

clientes 

urbes 

arces 

inures 

Abl. 

clientilms 

urbilms 

arcibus 

muritons 

1  Cliens  ia  for  clientis,  urbs  for  urbitt,  arx  for  arcis,  and  mus  for  miisis  ;  see  36,  5, 
2),  note.    Mils,  originally  an  s-steui,  Greek  /xus,  became  an  -i-stem  in  Latin  by  assuming  i. 

2  The  vowel  e  is  here  short  before  nt,  but  long  before  ns;  see  16,  note  2.    Indeed,  it 
seems  probable  that  nt  and  nd  shorten  a  preceding  vowel,  as  ns  lengthens  it.    See  Mul- 
ler,  p.  27 ;  Eitschl,  Khein.  Museum,  xxxi.,  p.  488. 

3  Xin  anB=C6,  c  belonging  to  the  stem,  and  s  being  the  Nom.  suffix. 

4  Miiris  is  for  musis;  s  changed  to  r  between  two  vowels ;  see  31, 1. 


38  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

1.  PARADIGMS. — Observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  clienti,  urbi,  arci,  and  muri. 

2)  That  these  nouns  are  declined  in  the  singular  precisely  like  consonant- 
stems,  and  in  the  plural  precisely  like  all  other  masculine  and  feminine 
systems.1 

2.  This  class  of  ^'-sterns  includes— 

1)  Most  nouns  in  ns  and  rs : 2  cliens,  cUentis,  client ;  coJiors,  cohortis, 
cohort. 

2)  Monosyllables  in  s  and  x  preceded  by  a  consonant,3  and  a  few  in  s 
and  x  preceded  by  a  vowel:4  urbs,  city;  arx,  citadel;  lls,  strife;   nox, 
night. 

3)  Names  of  nations  in  as  and  Is,  or,  if  plural,  in  ates  and  Ites :  Arpinas, 
pi.  Arplnates,  an  Arpinatian,  the  Arpinates  ;    Samnls,  pi.  Samnifes,  the 
Samnites. 

4)  Optimdtes,  the  aristocracy ;  Penates,  the  household  gods,  and  occasion- 
ally other  nouns  in  as. 

NOTE  1. — Card,  flesh,  has  a  form  in  is,  carnis  (for  carinis),  from  which  are  formed 
carrii,  camium,  etc. 

NOTE  2.— Pars,  part,  sometimes  has  partim  in  the  Accusative. 

NOTE  Z.—Rus,  country,  sors,  lot,  supellex,  furniture,  and  a  few  other  words  some- 
times have  the  Ablative  in  I. 

65.  SUMMARY  OF  I-STEMS. — To  i-s terns  belong — 

1.  All  nouns  in  is  and  es  which  do  not  increase  in  the  Genitive  ; 
see  62.     Here  belong  also — 

1)  Names  of  months  in  ber  (for  bris) :  September,  October,  etc. ;  see  62,  N.  1. 

2)  The  following  nouns  in  ber  and  ter  (for  bris  and  tris) :  imber,  storm ; 
linter,  boat ;  uter,  leathern  sack ;  venter,  belly ;  generally  also  Insuber,  an 
Insubrian. 

2.  Neuters  in  e,  al  (for  alls)  and  ar  (for  aris)  ;  see  63  ;  also  63, 
2,  note. 

3.  Many  nouns  in  s  and  x — especially  (1)  nouns  in  ns  and  rs, 
and  (2)  monosyllables  in  s  and  x  preceded  by  a  consonant ;  see 
64,  2. 

1  Nouns  thus  declined  are  most  conveniently  treated  as  «-nouns,  though  the  stem 
appears  to  end  in  a  consonant  in  the  Sing.,  and  in  i  in  the  Plur.    In  some  of  these  nouns 
the  stem  has  lost  its  final  i  in  the  Sing.,  while  in  others  it  ended  originally  in  a  con- 
sonant, but  afterward  assumed  i  in  the  Plur.,  at  least  in  certain  cases ;  see  62, 1.,  foot- 
note. 

2  Some  of  these  often  have  urn  in  poetry  and  sometimes  even  in  prose,  as  paren^ 
parent,  generally  has. 

3  Except  (ops)  opis  and  the  Greek  nouns,  grtfps,  lynx,  sphinx. 

4  Namely,  faux,  glls,  Its,  mds,  nix,  nox,  os  (ossis),  ms,  generally  fraus  and  mus. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


39 


66.  SPECIAL  PAKADIGMS. 


SUS,  M.  &  F., 

swine. 

Bos,  M.  &  F, 
ox,  cow. 

,,       Nix,  F., 
mow. 

Senex,  M. 
old  man. 

,         ViS,  F., 

force. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

sus 

bos1 

nix 

senex 

vis 

Gen. 

suis 

bovis 

nivis 

senis 

vis2 

Dat. 

sul 

bovl 

nivl 

senl 

vi  2 

Ace. 

suem 

bovem 

nivem 

senem 

vim. 

Voc. 

sus 

bos 

nix 

senex 

vis 

Abl. 

sue 

bove 

nive 

sene 

vi 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

sues 

boves 

nive"s 

sene"s 

vires 

Gen. 

suum 

(  bovum 
1  boum 

nivium 

senum 

virium 

Dat. 

j  suibus 

(  subus 

j  bobus  l 
I  bubus  1 

nivibus 

senibus 

viribus 

Ace. 

sues 

boves 

nive"s 

senes 

vlre"s 

Voc. 

sues 

boves 

nive"s 

senes 

vlr^s 

Abl 

j  suibus 
I  subus 

j  bobus 
(  bubus 

nivibus 

senibus 

viribus 

1. 

The  STEMS 

are  su  ;  bov  ; 

nig  (nix  =  nigs), 

niv,  nivi;3 

senec,  sen;  vl 

(sing.),  viri  (for  vm,  plur.) ;  4  see  31,  1. 

2.  Sus,  and  GRUS,  crane,  the  only  u  stems  in  this  declension,  are  de- 
clined alike,  except  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural,  where  grus  is 
regular:  gruibus. 

3.  JUPPITER,  Jupiter,  is  thus  declined:  Juppiter,  Jovis,  Jovl,  Jovem, 
Juppiter,  Jove.     STEMS,  Juppiter  and  Jov. 

4.  LOCATIVE. — Many  names  of  towns  have  a  Locative  Singular  in  I  or  e 
denoting  the  place  in  which  (45,  2).     Thus  : 

Nom.  Karthago,  Carthage, 

Gen.  Karthaginis,  of  Carthage, 

Dat.  KarthaginI,  for  Carthage, 

Ace.  Karthagineia,  Carthage, 

'  Voc.  Karthago,  0  Carthage, 

Abl.  Karthagine,  from  Carthage, 


Loc.     KarthaginI  or  e,       at  Carthage. 


Tlbur, 

Tlburis, 

Tiburl, 

Tlbur, 

Tlbur, 

Tlbure, 

Tiburl  or  e, 


Tibur, 
of  Tibur, 
for  Tibur, 
Tibur, 
0  Tibur, 
from  Tibur, 
at  Tibur. 


1  Eds  =  bovs,  bous ;  bobus,  "bubus  =  bovibus,  boubus. 

2  The  Gen.  and  Dat.  Sing.— vis,  vi>—  are  rare. 

3  For  nigvi,  from  which  nig  is  formed  by  first  dropping  i  and  then  v;  see  87,  36, 
3,  note  1. 

4  VI  is  formed  from  msi  by  first  dropping  i  and  then  9, 


40  GREEK  NOUNS. 

67.  CASE-SUFFIXES  AKD  CASE-EHDI:N-GS.J 


SINGULAR. 

CONSONANT 

STEMS. 

I-BTEMS. 

MASC.  AND  FEM. 

NEUT. 

MASC.  AND  FEM. 

NKUT. 

Nom.   s,  —  a 

__  2 

is,  es,  s 

e-3 

Gen.    is 

is 

is 

is 

Dat.     I 

I 

1 

1 

Ace.     em 

— 

im,  em 

e,— 

Voc.     s 

— 

is,  es,  s 

e,— 

AU.     e 

e 

1,  e 

I 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  es  a  es  ia 

Gen.  urn  um  ium  ium 

Dat.  ibus  ibus  ibus  ibus 

Ace.  es  a  es,  Is  ia 

Voc.  es  a  es  ia 

Abl.  ibus  ibus  ibus  ibus 

NOTE.— The  following  irregular  case-endings  occur :  3 

1.  £\  for  I,  in  the  Dat.  Sing. :  4  aerl  for  aerl. 

2.  Eis,  for  Is,  in  the  Ace.  Plur. :  clveis  for  clvls,  elves. 
8.  For  GREEK  ENDINGS,  see  68. 

GREEK    NOUNS. 

68.  Most  Greek  nouns  of  the  third  declension  are  en- 
tirely regular,  but  a  few  retain  certain  peculiarities  of  the 
Greek.  The  following  are  examples  : 

Lampas,  F.,  Phryx,  M.  &  F.,      Heros,  M., 

torch.  Phrygian.  hero. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.  lampas  Phryx  heros 

Gen.  lampadis,  os  Phrygis,  os  herois 

Dat.   lampadl,  i  Phrygl,  i  herol,  i 

Ace.    lampadem,  a,  Phrygem,  a.  heroem,  si 

Voc.   lampas  Phryx  heros 

Abl.    lampade  Phryge  heroe 


1  On  the  distinction  between  Case-Suffixes  and  Case-Endings,  see  46, 1,  and  47,  note  3. 

2  The  dash  denotes  that  the  case-ending  is  wanting. 

3  To  these  should  be  added  for  early  Latin— 1)  us  and  es  in  the  Gen.  Sing. :  hominus 
=  Tiominis  ;  salutes  =  salutis;  2)  Id  and  e  in  the  Abl.  Sing. :  convention^  =  conven- 
tions; patre—patre;  3)  ?«  and  eis in  the  Nom.  Plur.  of  i-nouns  :  fineis,  finis  =  fines. 
On  the  Case-Endings  of  the  Third  Declension  in  early  Latin,  see  Wordsworth,  pp. 
68-73;  Kuhner,  I.,  pp.  173-179. 

4  This  e  is  generally  long. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


41 


Nom.  lampade's,  es 
Gen.    lampadum 
Dat.     lampadilms 
Ace.     lampades,  as 
Voc.     lampades,  es 
Abl.     lampadilms 

Pericles,  M., 
Pericles. 

Nom.  Pericles 
Gen.  Periclis,  I 
Dat.  PericU,  i 


PLURAL. 

Phryges,  es 
Phryg*im 
Phrygians 
Phryge"s,  as 
Phryges,  es 
Phrygitms 

Paris,  M.,      Dido,  F., 
Paris.  Dido. 

SINGULAR.1 

Paris  Dido 

Paridis,  os    Dldus,  onis 
ParidI,  i         Dido,  onl,  oni 


.       _    .  .  (Paridem,  a   _  ._ 

Ace.  Penclem,  ea,  en-J_,    .       .         Dido,  onem. 
(Panm,  in 


heroe's,  es 
heroiini 
heroi"biis 
heroes,  as 
heroes,  es 
heroilms 

Orpheus,  M., 
Orpheus. 

Orpheus 2 
Orph-eos,  el,  \ 
Orph-el,  ei,  1,  eo 

Orphea,  eum 


Dido 
Dido,  one 


Orpheu 
Orpheo 


Voc.  Pericles,  es,  e       Pari 
Abl   Pericle  Paride 

1.  Observe  that  these  PARADIGMS  fluctuate  in  certain  cases — (1)  between 
the  Latin  and  the  Greek  forfns  :  lampadis,  os  ;  lampadem,  a  ;  heroes,  as : — (2) 
between  different  declensions:  PERICLES,  between  Dec.  I.,  PericUn,  PericU, 
Dec.  II.,  PericU  (Gen.),  and  Dec.  III.,  Periclis,  etc. :  ORPHEUS,  between  Dec. 
II.,  Orphel,  Orpheo,  etc.,  and  Dec.  III.,  Orpheos,  etc. 

2.  NOUNS  IN  ys  have  Gen.  yos,  ys,  Ace.  ym,  yn :  Othrys,  Oihnjos,  OtJirym, 


3.  The  VOCATIVE  SINGULAR  drops  s — (1)  in  nouns  in  ens,  ys,  and  in  proper 
names  in  as,  Gen.  antis :  Atlas,  Atla  .'—(2)  generally  in  nouns  in  is,  and 
sometimes  in  other  words :  Pari. 

4.  In  the  GENITIVE  PLURAL,  the  ending  on  occurs  in  a  few  titles  of  books : 
Metamorphoses  (title  of  a  poeni),  Metamorphdseon. 

5.  In  the  DATIVE  AND  ABLATIVE  PLURAL  the  ending  si,  before  vowels  sin, 
occurs  in  poetry :  Troades,  Troasin. 

6.  A  few  neuters  used  only  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative 
have  os  in  the  Singular  and  e  in  the  Plural :  melos,  mele,  song. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

I.    NOUNS  ENDING  IN  A  VOWEL. 

69.  Nouns  in  a : 3  Genitive  in  atis :  Stem  in  at : 

poema,  poem,  pocmatis,  poemat. 

1  The  Plural  is  of  course  generally  wanting;  see  130,  2. 

2  Eu  is  a  diphthong  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc. ;  ei  sometimes  a  diphthong  in  the  Gen, 
and  Dat. 

3  These  are  of  Greek  origin. 


42  SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

70.  Nouns  in  e :  Genitive  in  is  :  Stem  in  i : 

mare,  sea,  maris,  man. 

7 1 .  Nouns  in  1 : l  Genitive  in  is :  Stem  in  i : 

sinapi,  mustard,  sinapis,  Binapi. 

NOTE.— Many  nouns  in  I  are  indeclinable.    Compounds  ofmell  have  itis  in  the  Geni- 
tive :  oxymell,  oxymelitis,  oxymel. 

72.  Nouns  in  6  or  6 :  Genitive  in  onis :  Stem  in  on : 

Ie6,  lion,  leonis,  Icon. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in — 

1.  onis : — most  national  names :  Macedo,  Macedonis,  Macedonian. 

2.  inis  : 2 — Apollo  ;  homo,  man ;  nemo,  nobody  ;  turbo,  whirlwind ;  and 

nouns  in  do  and  go :  grando,  grandinis,  hail ;  virgo, 
virginis,  maiden  ;  except — harpago,  onis  ;  ligb,  onis  ; 
praedo,  onis,  also  comedo,  cudb,  mangb,  spado,  unedb,  udb. 

3.  nis  : — card,  carnis  (for  carinis*),  flesh  ;  see  64,  2,  note  1. 

4.  enis: — Anib,  Anienis,  river  Anio;  Nerib,  Nerienis. 

5.  us : — a  few  Greek  feminines :  Dido,  Dldus  ;  see  68. 

73.  Nouns  in  y  3 :  Gen.  in  yis  (yos,  ys) :  Stem  in  y : 

misy,  copperas,  misyis  (yos,  ys),  misy. 

II.    NOUNS  ENDING  IN  A  MUTE  OK  LIQUID. 

74.  Nouns  in  c :  alec,  alecis,  pickle ;  lac,  lactis,4  milk. 

75.  Nouns  in  1 :  Genitive  in  lis :  Stem  in  1 : 

sol,  sun,  solis,  sol. 

NOTE.— Fel,felli8,  gall ;  met,  mellis,  honey ;  sal,  aalis^  salt.   On  neuters  hi  aZ,  see  63. 

76.  Nouns  in  n :  Genitive  in  nis :  Stem  in  n : 

paean,  paean,  paeanis,  paean, 

flumen,  stream,  fitiminis,  flumen,  in. 

NOTE  1.— Nouns  in  en  have  the  variable  radical  vowel— e,  i;  see  60, 1,  2). 
NOTE  2. — There  are  a  few  Greek  words  in  on,  Gen.  in  onis,  ontis,  St.  in  on,  6nt  ' 
aedon,  aedonis,  nightingale ;  XenopTwn,  XenopJwntis,  Xenophon. 

77.  Nouns  in  r :  Genitive  in  ris :  Stem  in  r : 

career,  prison,  careens,  career. 

1.  Nouns  in  ar,  ar:  (1)  ar,  G.  aris,  St.  ari:  lar,  laris,  house;  (2)  par, 
paris,  pair ;  far,  f arris,  corn ;  hepar,  hepatis,  liver.    For  ar,  G.  aris,  and  ar, 
G.  aris,  see  63. 

2.  Nouns  in  ter :  Gen.  in  tris :  pater,  patris,  father ;  except  later,  lateris, 
tile;  iter,itineris,w&y;  Juppit6r,Joms;  and  Greek  nouns:  crater,  crdteris,  bowl. 

1  These  are  of  Greek  origin. 

3  Stem  in  on,  in,  or  oni,  ini,  ni  ;  see  60, 1,  2). 

3  Nouns  in  y  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  often  indeclinable. 

4  The  only  nouns  in  c. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION.  43 

NOTE.— -Imber  and  names  of  months  in  ber  have  bris  in  the  Genitive ;  imber,  imbris, 
shower;  September,  Septembris,  September;  see  63,  IV.,  notes  1  and  2. 

3.  Nouns  in  or :  G.  oris,  St.  or :  pastor,  pastwis,  shepherd ;  but  a  few 
have  G.  oris,  St.  or:  arbor,  arboris,  tree;  aequor,  sea;  marmor,  marble. 
But  cor,  cordis,  heart. 

4.  Four  in  TIT  :  G.  oris,  St.  or :  ebur,  ivory  ;  femur,  thigh ;  jecur,  liver ; 
rdbur,  strength ;  but  femur  has  alsofeminis,  and  jecur,  jecinoris,  jecineris, 
bud  jocineris. 

78.  Nouns  in  ut :  Genitive  in  itis :  Stem  in  ut,  it : 

caput,  head,  capitis,  caput,  it. 

III.    NOUNS  ENDING  IN   S. 

79.  Nouns  in  as :  Genitive  in  atis :  Stem  in  at : 

aetas,  age,  aetatis,  aetat. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1.  aris : — mas,  maris,  a  male ; — stem,  mas,  mari;  see  31,  1. 

2.  asis : — vas,  vasis,  vessel.1 

3.  assis : — as,  assis,  an  as  (a  coin). 

4.  antis : — only  masculine  Greek  nouns :  adamas,  antis,  adamant. 

NOTE.—  Anas,  duck,  and  neuter  Greek  nouns  in  as  have  atis :  anas,  anatis.  Vas, 
surety,  Areas,  Arcadian,  and  feminine  Greek  nouns  in  as  have  adis:  vas,  vadis, 
lampas,  lampadis? 

80.  Nouns  in  es :  Genitive  in  is :  Stem  in  i : 3 

nubes,  cloud,  nubis,  nubi. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1.  edis: — heres,  heredis,  heir;  merces,  reward. 

2.  edis  :—pes,  pedis,  foot,  and  its  compounds :  compes,  edis,  a  fetter. 

3.  eris: — Ceres,  Cereris* 

4.  etis : — quies,  rest,  with  compounds,  inquies,  requies,  and  a  few  Greek 

words:  lebes,  tapes. 

5.  etis : — abies,  fir-tree ;  aries,  ram  ;  pariest  wall. 

NOTE. — JBes,  beasis,  two-thirds ;  aes,  aerie,*  copper ;  praes,  praedis,  surety. 

81 .  Nouns  in  es  :  Genitive  in  itis :  Stem  in  et,  it : 

miles,  soldier,  militis,  mllet,  it. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1.  etis  : — interpres,  interpreter  ;  seges,  crop ;  teges,  covering. 

2.  idis  : — obses,  hostage ;  praeses,  president ;  see  57,  2. 

1  Vds  is  the  only  stem  in  8  which  does  not  change  s  to  r  between  two  vowels ;  see 
61, 1,  3). 

2  Greek  nouns  sometimes  have  ados  for  adis, 
8  But  see  64, 1. 

4  See  61, 1,  3). 


44  SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

82.  Nouns  in  is :  Genitive  in  is  :  Stem  in  i : 

avis,  bird,  avis,  avi. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1.  eris : — cinis,  cineris*  ashes ;  cucumis,  cucumber ;  pulvis,  dust ;  vomis, 

ploughshare. 

2.  idis : — capis,  cup ;  cassis,  helmet ;  cuspis,  spear ;   lapis,  stone ;  pro- 

mulsis,  antepast,  and  a  few  Greek 2  words :  as  tyrannis, 
idis,  tyranny.     Sometimes  ibis,  and  tigris. 

3.  inis : — pollis  or  pollen,  flour ;  sanguis,  blood. 

NOTE.— Gils,  gllris,  dormouse;  Us,  lltis,  strife;  semis,  semissis,  half  an  as;  Dis, 
Dttis;  QuirU,  Quirltis;  Samnls,  Samnltis. 

83.  Nouns  in  5s :  Genitive  in  oris :  Stem  in  6s : 

mos,  custom,  mOris,  mos. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1.  otis: — cos,  cot  is,  whetstone ;  dos,  dowry;  nepos,  grandson;  sacerdos, 

priest ;  and  a  few  Greek  words. 

2.  odis : — custos,  custodis,  guardian ;  see  86,  2. 

3.  ois  : — a  few  masculine  Greek  nouns :  herds,  hero ;  Minds,  Tros. 
NoTS.—Arbds  or  arbor,  arboris,  tree ;  os,  ossis,  bone ;  bos,  bovis,  ox ;  see  66. 

84.  Nouns  in  us,  Gen.  in  uris  or  utis  :  stem  in  us  or  ut. 

1.  uris  : — eras,  leg ;  jm,  right ;  jus,  soup ;  mus,  mouse ;  pus,  pus  ;  rus, 

country ;  tus  (thus),  incense ;  tettus,  earth. 

2.  utis :  — juventus,  youth  ;   salus,  safety  ;   senectus,  old  age  ;   servitus, 

servitude ;  virtus,  virtue ;  see  36,  2. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1.  udis : — incus,  anvil ;  palus,  marsh ;  subscus,  dovetail. 

2.  uis : — grus,  gruis,  crane ;  sus,  swine. 

3.  untis : — a  few  Greek  names  of  places :   Trapezus,  untis. 

4.  odis  : — Greek  compounds  in  pus :  tripus,  tripodis,  tripod. 

l$OTE.—Frau8,fraudi3,  fraud;  laus,  laudis,  praise;  see  64,  2,  2),  foot-note.    For 
Greek  nouns  in  eus,  see  68. 

85.  Nouns  in  us :  Gen.  in  eris  or  oris :  stem  in  os. 

1.  eris: — latus,  lateris,  side :  stem,  latos*    So  also:  acus,  foedus,  funus, 
genus,  glomus,  munus,  olus,  onus,  opus,  pondus,  rudus,  scelus,  sidus,  ulcus, 
vettus,  Venus,  viscus,  vulnus. 

2.  oris : — corpus,  corporis,  body  :  stem,  corpos.3    So  also  decus,  dedecus, 

1  Stem  cinis,  ciner  for  cine*  with  variable  vowel  i,  e;  see  24, 1 ;  31, 1 ;  and  57,  2. 
3  Greek  nouns  sometimes  have  idos  or  even  ios  for  idis  ;  Salarms  has  Salamlnis; 
Sitnois,  Simoentte. 

8  See  61, 1,  foot-note. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION.  45 

/ acinus,  faenus,  frigus,  leptts,  lltus,  nemus,  pectus,  pecus,  penus,  pignus,  ster- 
cus,  tempus,  tergus. 

~&OTV.— Pecus,  pecudis,  a  head  of  cattle;  Ligus,  Liguris,  Ligurian;  see  31. 

86.  Nouns  in  ys : !        Genitive  in  yis,  yos,  ys  :        Stem  in  y : 

Othrys,  Othryos,  Othry. 

87.  Nouns  in  bs :  Genitive  in  bis :  Stem  in  bi : 2 

urbs,  city,  urbis,  urbi. 

88.  Nouns  in  ms :  Genitive  in  inis :  Stem  in  m : 

hiems,  winter,  hiemis,  hiem. 

89.  Nouns  in  eps :  Genitive  in  ipis  :  Stem  in  ep,  ip. 

prmceps,  prince,  prmcipis,  prlncep,  ip. 

NOTE.— But  auceps,  aitcupis,  fowler.    Other  nouns  in  ps  retain  the  stem-vowel 
unchanged ;  merops,  meropis,  bee-eater.    Gryps,  griffin,  has  gryphis. 

90.  Nouns  in  s  after  1,  n,  or  r :        Gen.  in  tis :        Stem  in  ti : 

puls,  IrotTi,  pultis,  pulti. 

mens,  mind,  mentis,  menti.3 

ars,  art,  artis,  arti. 

NOTE.— Frons,  frondis,  leaf;  glum,  glandis^  acorn;  jiiffldns,  jtifflandis,  walnut; 
see  64,  2. 

IV.    NOUNS  ENDING  IN  X. 

9 1 .  Nouns  in  ax :  Genitive  in  aois :  Stem  in  ac  : 

pax,  peace,  pacis,  pac. 

NOTE.— Fax,  facia,  torch;  so  also  a  few  Greek  nouns.    Astyanax,  actis;  so  a  few" 
Greek  names  of  men. 

92.  Nouns  in  ex :  Genitive  in  ecis  or  egis :  Stem  in  ec,  eg : 

1.  ecis : — alex,  pickle ;  vervex,  wether. 

2.  egis  : — lex,  law ;  rex,  king,  and  their  compounds. 

93.  Nouns  in  ex :  Genitive  in  icis :  Stem  in  ic,  ec : 

judex,  judge,  judicis,  judic,  ec. 

EXCEPTIONS. — Genitive  in 

1.  ecis  : — nex,  murder;  fenisex,  mower;  (pr  ex),  precis,  prayer. 

2.  egis : — grex,  flock ;  aquilex,  water-inspector. 

3.  igis: — remex,  remigis,  rower;  see  24,  1. 

NOTE.— Faex,  faecis,  lees ;  senex,  senis,  old  man  (66) ;  supelle^  supellectilis, 
furniture. 

94.  Nouns  in  ix :        Genitive  in  icis :        Stem  in  Ic : 

radix,  root,  radlcis,  radio. 

1  These  are  of  Greek  origin ;  a  few  of  them  have  ydia:  chlamys,  chlamydis,  cloak. 

a  Dissyllables  have  the  stem  in  5. 

3  Dissyllables  in  ns  have  the  stem  in  t. 


46  GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

95.  Nouns  in  ix :        Genitive  in  icis :        Stem  in  ic  : 

calix,  cup,  calicis,  calic. 

NOTE.— Nix,  nivis  (66),  snow;  strix,  strigis,  screech-owl;  a  few  Gallic  names  also 
have  the  Genitive  in  igia :  Dumnorix,  Orgetorix. 

96.  Nouns  in  ox  or  ox :  vox,  vocis,  voice ;  nox,  noctis,  night. 

NOTE.— There  are  also  a  few  national  names  in  ox,  Gen.  in  ocis  or  ogis  :  Cappa- 
clox,  Cappadocis;  Allobrox,  Allobrogis. 

97.  Nouns  in  ux :        Genitive  in  ucis  :        Stem  in  uc : 

dux,  leader,  ducis,  due. 

NOTE  1.— Lux,  lucis,  light;  Pollux,  Polluda,  YQVL\a.;frux,frugis,  fruit. 

NOTE  2.— Greek  nouns  in  yx  and  yx  are  variously  declined :  Eryx,  Erycis,  Eryx ; 
bombyx,  'bombygis,  silkworm;  Styx,  Stygis,  Styx;  coccyx,  coccygis,  cuckoo;  onyx, 
onychis,  onyx. 

98.  Nouns  in  x  after  n  or  r :        Genitive  in  cis  :        Stem  in  ci : 

arx,  citadel,  arcis,  arci. 

NOTE  1. — Conjunx  or  eonjux,  conjugis,  spouse. 

NOTE  2.— Most  nouns  in  x  preceded  by  n  are  of  Greek  origin  :  lynx,  lyncis,  lynx ; 
phalanx,  phalangis,  phalanx. 

GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

99.  Nouns  in  the  third  declension  ending  in 

6,  or,  6s,  er,  and  in  es  and  es  increasing  in  the  Genitive* 

are  masculine :  sermo,  discourse;  dolor,  pain;  mos,  custom; 
agger,  mound;  pes,  Genitive pedis,  foot. 

1 00.  Nouns  in  6  are  masculine,  except  the  Feminities,  viz. : 

1.  Nouns  in  6,  Gen.  inis,  except  cardo,  ordo,  turbd,  masc.,  cupidd  and 

margd,  masc.  or  fern. 

2.  Card,  flesh,  and  the  Greek  Argo,  echo,  echo. 

3.  Most  abstract  and  collective  nouns  in  id :  ratio,  reason ;  contio,  an 

assembly. 

101.  Nouns  in  OR  are  masculine,  except — 

1.  The  Feminine: — arbor,  tree. 

2.  The  Neuters : — ador,  spelt ;  aequor,  sea ;  cor,  heart ;  marmor,  marble. 

1 02.  Nouns  in  OS  are  masculine,  except — 

1.  TheFeminines : — arbos,  tree ;  cos,  whetstone ;  dos,  dowry  ;  eos,  dawn. 

2.  TJie  Neuter : — os,  mouth. 

NOTE.— Os,  bone,  and  a  few  Greek  words  in  os  are  neuter:  chaos,  chaos. 

1 03.  Nouns  in  ER  are  masculine,  except— 

1  That  is,  having  more  syllables  in  the  Genitive  than  in  the  Nominative. 


GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION.  47 

1.  The  Feminine : — linter,  boat  (sometimes  masc.). 

2.  The  Neuters: — (1)  cadaver,  corpse;  iter,  way;  tuber ,  tumor;  uber, 

udder ;  ver,  spring  ;  verber,  scourge ; — (2)  botanical  names  in  er, 
Gen.  eris :  acer,  maple-tree  ;  papaver,  poppy. 

104.  Nouns  in  BS  and  ES  increasing  in  the  Genitive  are  masculine, 

except — 

1.  The  Feminines : — compes,   fetter;  merces,   reward;  merges,   sheaf; 

quies,  rest  (with  its  compounds) ;  seges,  crop  ;  teges,  mat ;  some- 
times ales,  bird,  and  quadrupes,  quadruped. 

2.  The  Neuter : — aes,  copper. 

105.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  ending  in 

as,  as,  is,  ys,  x,  in  es  not  increasing  in  the  Genitive,  and 
in  s  preceded  ly  a  consonant, 

are  feminine : *  aetds,  age ;  ndvis,  ship  ;  chlamys,  cloak ; 
pax,  peace ;  nules,  cloud ;  urls,  city. 

1 06.  Nouns  in  AS  and  AS  are  feminine,  except — 

1.  The  Masculines: — as,  an  as  (a  coin),  vas,  surety,  and  Greek  nouns  in 

as,  Gen.  antis. 

2.  The  Neuters : — vas,  vessel,  and  Greek  nouns  in  as,  Gen.  atis. 

1 07.  Nouns  in  IS  and  YS  are  feminine,  except  the  Masculines,  viz. : 

1.  Nouns  in  alls,  ollis,  cis,  mis,  nis,  guis,  quis:  natalis,  birthday; 

ignis,  fire ;  sanguis,  blood.     But  a  few  of  these  are  occasionally 
feminine :  canis,  amnis,  cinis,  finis,  anguis,  torquis. 

2.  Axis,  axle  ;   buris,  plough-tail  ;   callis,  path  ; l  ensis,  sword ;   lapis, 

stone ;  mensis,  month ;  orbis,  circle ;  postis,  post ;  pulvis,  dust ; 
sentis,  brier ;  torris,  brand ;  vectis,  lever  ;  and  a  few  others. 

3.  Names  of  mountains  in  ys :  Othrys. 

1 08.  Nouns  in  X  are  feminine,  except  the  Masculines,  viz. : 

1.  Greek  masculines:  corax,  raven;  thorax,  cuirass. 

2.  Nouns  in  ex  and  tmx ;  except  the  feminines :  faex,forfex,  nex,  (prex), 

supellex. 

3.  Calix,  cup ;  fornix,  arch ;  phoenix,  phoenix ;  tradux,  vine-layer,  and 
a  few  nouns  in  yx. 

4.  Sometimes :  calx,  heel ;  calx,  lime  ;  lynx,  lynx. 

109.  Nouns  in  ES  not  increasing  in  the  Genitive  are  feminine,  except 
the  Masculines,  viz. : 

1  Nouns  whose  gender  is  determined  by  Signification  (42)  may  be  exceptions  to 
these  rules  for  gender  as  determined  by  Endings.    Callis  is  sometimes  feminine. 


48  FOURTH  DECLENSION. 

Acmaces,  cimeter ;  sometimes  palumbes,  dove ;  and  vepres,  thorn-bush. 
NOTE.— -For  Greek  nouns  in  est  see  111,  note. 

110.  Nouns  in  S  PRECEDED  BY  A  CONSONANT  are  feminine,  except  the 
Masculines,  viz. : 

1.  Dens,  tooth ;  fons,  fountain ;  mons,  mountain  ;  pons,  bridge  ;  gener- 

ally adeps,  fat,  and  rudens,  cable. 

2.  Some  nouns  in  ns,  originally  adjectives  or  participles  with  a  mascu- 

line noun  understood :  oriens  (sol),  east ;  confluens  (amnis),  con- 
fluence ;  tridens  (raster),  trident ;  quadrans  (as),  quarter. 

3.  Chalybs,  steel ;  hydrops,  dropsy,  and  a  few  other  Greek  words. 

4.  Sometimes :  forceps,  forceps  ;  serpens,  serpent ;  stirps,  stock.     Ani- 

mans,  animal,  is  masculine,  feminine,  or  neuter. 

111.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  ending  in 

a,  e,  I,  y,  c,  1,  n,  t,  ar,  ar,  ur,  us,  and  us 

are  neuter : *  poema,  poem ;  mare,  sea  ;  lac,  milk ;  animal, 
animal ;  carmen,  song  ;  caput,  head  ;  corpus,  body. 

NOTE.— A  few  Greek  nouns  in  es  are  also  neuter :  cacoethes,  desire,  passion. 

112.  Nouns  in  Ii,  AR,  and  AR  are  neuter,  except  the  Masculines,  viz. : 
Muail,  mullet ;  sal,1  salt ;  sol,  sun ;  lar,  hearth  ;  salar,  trout. 

113.  Nouns  in  N  are  neuter,  except — 

1.  The  Masculines :— pecten,   comb;  ren,   kidney;   lien,   spleen;   and 

Greek  masculines  in  an,  en,  in,  on  :  paean,  paean ;  canon,  rule. 

2.  The  Feminines : — aedon,  nightingale  ;   alcydn  (halcyon),  kingfisher ; 

icon,  image ;  sindon,  muslin. 

114.  Nouns  in  UR  are  neuter,  except  the  Masculines,  viz. : 
Furfur,  bran ;  turtur,  turtle-dove ;  vultur,  vulture. 

115.  Nouns  in  US  and  US  are  neuter,  except — 

1.  The  Masculines : — lepus,  hare ;  mus,  mouse ;  and  Greek  nouns  in  pus. 

2.  The  Feminines : — tellus,  earth ;  fraus,  fraud ;  laus,  praise ;  and  nouns 

in  us,  Gen.  utis  or  udis :  virtus,  virtue ;  palus,  marsh. 

FOUKTH  DECLENSION:  U  NOUNS. 

116.  Nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  end  in 

us — masculine;  u — neuter. 
They  are  declined  as  follows  : 

1  See  foot-note,  page  47.    Sal  is  sometimes  neuter  in  the  singular. 


FOURTH  DECLENSION.  49 


Fructus,  fruit. 

Cornu,  horn. 

SINGULAR. 

CASK-ENDINGS. 

jVbw.  fructus 

cornii 

us 

u 

Gen.    fructfts 

cornus 

us 

us 

Dat.    f  ructiil,  ii.  l 

cornii 

Ul,  U1 

u 

Ace.    fructum. 

corna 

urn 

u 

Voc.     fructus 

cornii 

us 

u 

Abl    fractii. 

cornii. 

u 

u 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  fructus 

corniia 

us. 

ua 

Gen.    fructuiim 

cornuimi 

uum 

uum 

Dat.    fructibus 

cornilms 

ibus  (ubus) 

ibus  (ubus) 

Ace.    fructfts 

corniia. 

us 

ua 

Voc.    fructfts 

cornua 

us 

ua 

Abl.    fructifons 

cornilms 

ibus  (ubus) 

ibus  (ubus) 

1.  The  STEM  in  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  ends  in  u :  fructu,  cornu. 

2.  The  CASE-ENDINGS  here  given  contain  the  characteristic  u,  weakened 
to  i  in  ibusy  but  retained  in  ubus  ;  see  22. 

117.  The  following  IRREGULAR  CASE-ENDINGS  occur : 2 

1.  Ubus  for  ibus  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural — 

1)  Kegularly  in  acus,  needle ;  arms,  bow ;  and  tribus,  tribe. 

2)  Often  in  artus*  joint ;  lacus,  lake  ;  partus,  birth  ;  portus,  harbor ; 
specus,  cave ;  and  veru,  spit. 

3)  Occasionally  in  a  few  other  words,  as  genu,  knee  ;  tonitrus,  thunder,  etc. 

2.  Uis,  the  uncontracted  form  for  Us,  in  the  Genitive :  fructuis  for 
fructus.* 

3.  Uos,  an  old  form 5  of  the  Genitive  ending :  senatuosf  of  the  senate. 

118.  Nouns  in  us  are  masculine,  those  in  u  are  neuter,  but  the  fol- 
lowing in  us  are — 

1  Thus  ul  is  contracted  into  u :  fructul,  fructu. 

2  To  these  should  be  added  the  rare  endings  ud  for  u  in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  uus  for  Us  in 
the  Gen.  Sing.,  and  uils  for  Us  in  the  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  PL  See  Wordsworth,  pp.  60-62. 

3  Generally  plural,  limbs. 

*  It  has  been  already  mentioned  (47,  note  1)  that  the  five  declensions  are  only  five 
varieties  of  one  general  system  of  inflection.  The  close  relationship  between  the  third 
declension  and  the  fourth  will  be  seen  by  comparing  the  declension  of  fructus,  a  w-noun 
of  the  fourth,  with  that  of  grus  (66,  2),  a  w-noun  of  the  third.  In  fact,  if  the  old  Geni- 
tive ending  uis  had  not  been  contracted  into  us,  there  would  have  been  no  fourth  de- 
clension whatever.  All  w-nouns  would  have  belonged  to  the  third  declension. 

5  Compare  the  Greek  Genitive  in  vos  :  l\0vg,  tx^'os,  fish- 

6  This  was  first  weakened  to  sendtuis  (33),  and  then  contracted  to  ematus  (33,  2), 
the  classical  form. 


50  FIFTH  DECLENSION. 

FEMININE  BY  EXCEPTION  :—(!)  acus,  needle;  coins,  distaff;  domus,  house ; 
manus,  hand ;  portions,  portico ;  tribus,  tribe ;— (2)  Idus,  Ides ; 
Qumqudtrus,  feast  of  Minerva ;  generally  penus,  store,  when  of 
this  declension ;  rarely  specus,  den ; — (3)  see  43,  II. 

NOTE. — The  only  neuter  nouns  in  common  use  are  cornii,  g&nu,  and  verii.1 

119.  SECOND  AND  FOURTH  DECLENSIONS. — Some  nouns  are  partly  of 
the  fourth  declension  and  partly  of  the  second. 

1.  Domus,  F.,  house,  has  a  Locative  form  domi,  at  home,  and  is  other 
wise  declined  as  follows  :  * 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Nom.  domus  domus 

Gen.    domus  domuum,  domorum 

Dat.     domul  (domo)  domibus 

Ace.     domum  domos,  doinus 

Foe.      domus  domus 

Alii,     domo  (domu)  domibus 

2.  Certain  names  of  trees  in  us,  as  cupres8us,ficus,  laurus,  pinus,  though 
generally  of  Decl.  II.,  sometimes  take  those  cases  of  the  fourth  which  end  in 
us,  us,  and  u :  N.  laurus,  G.  laurus,  D.  lauro,  A.  laurum,  V.  laurus,  A.  lauru, 
etc.    So  also  colus,  distaff. 

3.  A  few  nouns,  especially  sendtus,  senate,  and  tumultus,  tumult,  though 
regularly  of  Decl.  IV.,  sometimes  take  the  Genitive  ending  I  of  the  second ; 
sendti,  tumultl. 

4.  Quercust  oak,  regularly  of  Decl.  IV.,  has  quercorum  in  the  Gen.  Plur. 

FIFTH  DECLENSION :  E  NOUNS. 

120.  Nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  end  in  es— -feminine, 
and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Dies,  day. 

Res,  thing. 

SINGULAR. 

CASE-ENDINGS. 

Nom. 

dies 

res 

es 

Gen. 

diSI  or  die 

re!  or  re 

JM 

Dat. 

die!  or  die 

rel  or  re" 

el,  e 

Ace. 

diem 

rem 

em 

Voc. 

dies 

res 

ee 

Abl 

die 

rfc 

e 

1  But  neuter  forms  occur  in  certain  cases  of  other  words.    Thus,  Dat.  pecul,  AbL 
pecu,  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  PI.  pecua,  from  obsolete  pecil,  cattle;  also  artua  from 
artm  ;  ossua  from  obsolete  ossu,  bone ;  specua  from  specus. 

2  Combining  forms  of  the  second  declension  with  those  of  the  fourth. 


FIFTH  DECLENSION.  51 

PLUKAL.  CASE-ENDINGS. 

Nom.  di£s  rSs  6s 

Gen.  diemm  r€rinn  Srum 

Dat.  didms  r€lms  ebus 

Ace.  dies  rSs  es 

Foe.  dies  res  6s 

All.  diebus  rebus  gbus 

1.  The  STEM  of  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  ends  in  e  :  die,  re.1 

2.  The  CASE-ENDINGS  here  given  contain  the  characteristic  e,  which  ap- 
pears  in  all  the  cases.     It  is  shortened  (1)  generally  in  the  ending  la,  when 
preceded  by  a  consonant,  and  (2)  regularly  in  the  ending  em. 

NOTE.— Traces  of  a  Locative  in  e  are  preserved  in  certain  phrases  found  in  early 
Latin,  as  die  septiml,  on  the  seventh  day;  die  crdstinl,  on  the  morrow;  die  proximo , 
on  the  next  day.  Cotldie,  hodie,  pridie,  and  the  like  are  doubtless  Locatives  in  origin. 

121.  IRREGULAR  CASE-ENDINGS. — The  following  occur : 

1.  I  or  el  for  el  in  the  Gen.  and  Dat.:  acii  for  aciel,  of  sharpness; 
diei  for  diei ;  rel  for  rei  ;  pernicii  for  perniciei,  of  destruction. 

2.  Es  in  the  Gen.  in  early  Latin :  dies,  of  a  day ;  rabies,  of  madness. 

1 22.  DEFECTIVE. — Nouns  of  this  declension  want  the  plural,  except 2 — 

1.  Dies  and  res,  complete  in  all  their  parts. 

2.  Acies,  sharpness ;  effigies,  image ;  fades,  face ;  series,  series ;  species,  ap- 
pearance ;  spes,3  hope,  used  in  the  Sing.,  and  in  the  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  Plur. 

3.  Eluvies,  used  in  the  Sing,  and  in  the  Nom.  Plur.,  and  glades  in  the 
Sing,  and  in  the  Ace.  Plur. 

1 23.  GENDER. — Nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  are  feminine — 

EXCEPT  dies,  day,  and  merldies,  midday,  masculine,  though  dies  is  some 
times  feminine  in  the  singular,  especially  when  it  means  time. 

124.  GENEEAL  TABLE  OF  GENDER. 

I.  Gender  independent  of  ending.4  Common  to  all  de- 
clensions. 

1  Originally  most  e-stems  appear  to  have  been  either  a-stema  or  s-stems.    Thus :  1) 
Most  stems  in  ie  are  modified  from  id :  mdterid,  mdteriG,  Nom.  mdterie-s,  material ; 
see  25, 1,  note,  with  foot-note  6.    In  this  class  of  words  the  Gen.  and  Dat.  Sing,  are 
formed  from  the  stem  in  id,  not  from  that  in  ies :  mdteriae,  not  materiel.    2)  Dies, 
fides,  plebes,  and  spes  appear  to  have  been  s-stems,  modified  to  e-stems,  as  many 
s-stems  in  the  third  declension  were  modified  to  i-stems;  see  63, 1.,  1,  foot-note. 

2  A  few  plural  forms  in  addition  to  those  here  given  are  sometimes  cited,  but  seem 
not  to  occur  in  writers  of  the  classical  period. 

3  In  early  Latin  speres  occurs  in  the  Nom.  and  Ace.  Plur.,  formed  from  spes  treated 
as  a  stem  in  s.    Thus :  spes,  spese*,  speres  (31, 1).      ' 

4  For  exceptions,  see  43, 


COMPOUND  NOUNS. 


Masculine. 

Names  of  MALES,  of 
RIVERS,  WINDS,  and 
MONTHS. 


Feminine. 

Names  of  FEMALES,  of 
COUNTRIES,  TOWNS,  ISL- 
ANDS, and  TREES. 


Neuter. 

INDECLINABLE  NouNS,1  IN- 
FINITIVES,  and  CLAUSES 
used  as  Nouns. 


II.  Gender  determined  by  Nominative  ending.3 


Masculine. 

as,  es. 
er,  ir,  us,  os,  5s.     I 

6,  or,  5s,  er,  es  and 

es  increasing  in  the 
Genitive. 


us. 


DECLENSION  I. 
Feminine. 
a,e. 

DECLENSION  II. 

DECLENSION  III. 
as,  as,  is,  ys,  x,  es  and 
es  not  increasing  in  tJie 
Genitive,  B  Receded  by 
a  consonant. 

DECLENSION  IV. 

DECLENSION  V. 
es. 


Neuter. 


a,  e,  1,  y,  c,  1,  n,  t,  ar. 
ar,  ur,  us,  us. 


COMPOUND   NOUNS. 

125.  Compounds  present  in  general  no  peculiarities  of  declension. 
But-— 

1.  If  two  nominatives  unite,  they  are  both  declined : 3  respublica  =  respub- 
lica, republic,  the  public  thing ;  jusjurandum  =  jus  jurandum,  oath. 

2.  If  a  nominative  unites  with  an  oblique  case,  only  the  nominative  is 
declined : 3  paterfamilias  =  pater  familids  (49, 1),  or  pater  familiae,  the  father 
of  a  family. 

126.  PARADIGMS. 

SINGULAR. 


Nom.  respublica 
Gen.    relpublicae 
Dot.    reipublicae 
Ace.    rempublicam 
Voc.     respublica 
Abl.    republica 

jusjurandum 
jurisjurandi 
jurljurando 
jusjurandum 
jusjurandum 
jurejurando 

paterfamilias 
patrisfamilias 
patrifamilias 
patremfamilias 
paterfamilias 
patrefamilias 

1  Except  names  of  persons. 

a  For  exceptions,  see  under  the  several  declensions. 

3  "Words  thus  formed,  however,  are  not  compounds  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term; 
see  340, 1.,  note. 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS.  53 

PLURAL. 

Nbm.  respublicae  iurajuranda  patresfamilias 

Gen.   rerumpublicarum  patrumfamilias 

Dat.    rebuspublicis  patribusfamilias 

Ace.    respublicas  jurajuranda  patresfamilias 

Foe.    respublicae  iurajuranda  patresfamilias 

Abl.    rebuspublicis  patribusfamilias 

NOTE  1.— The  parts  which  compose  these  and  similar  words  are  often  and  perhaps 
more  correctly  written  separately :  respftVlica;  paterfamilias  orfamiliae. 

NOTE  2.— Paterfamilias  sometimes  has  familiarum  in  the  plural :  patresfamili- 
drum. 

IRREGULAR    NOUNS. 

127.  Irregular  nouns  may  be  divided  into  four  classes : 

I.  INDECLINABLE  NOUNS  have  but  one  form  for  all  cases. 

II.  DEFECTIVE  NOUNS  want  certain  parts. 

III.  HETEROCLITES  (Jieteroclita1)  are  partly  of  one  declension  and  partly 
of  another. 

IV.  HETEROGENEOUS  NOUNS  (heterogenea 2)  are  partly  of  one  gender  and 
partly  of  another. 

I.  INDECLINABLE  NOUNS. 

1 28.  The  Latin  has  but  few  indeclinable  nouns.    The  following  are 
the  most  important : 

1.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  b,  c,  alpha,  beta,  etc. 

2.  Foreign  words :  Jacob,  Uiberl ;  though  foreign  words  often  are  declined. 

II.  DEFECTIVE  NOUNS. 

1 29.  Nouns  may  be  defective  in  Number,  in  Case,  or  in  both  Number 
and  Case. 

1 30.  PLURAL  WANTING. — Many  nouns  from  the  nature  of  their  signi- 
fication want  the  plural :  Roma,  Rome ;  justitia,  justice ;  aurum,  gold ;  fa- 
mes, hunger;  sanguis,  blood. 

1.  The  principal  nouns  of  this  class  are : 

1)  Most  names  of  persons  and  places :  Cicero,  Roma. 

2)  Abstract  Nouns :  fides,  faith ;  justitia,  justice. 

3)  Names  of  materials :  aurum,  gold ;  ferrum,  iron. 

4)  A  few  others :  meridies,  midday ;  specimen,  example ;  supellex,  furni- 
ture ;  ver,  spring ;  vespera,  evening,  etc. 

2.  Proper  names  admit  the  plural  to  designate  families,  classes  ;  names  of 
materials,  to  designate  pieces  of  the  material  or  articles  made  of  it ;  and  ab- 
stract nouns,  to  designate  instances,  or  kinds,  of  the  quality :  Scipiones,  the 
Scipios;  aera,  vessels  of  copper;  avaritiae,  instances  of  avarice;  odia,  hatreds. 

3.  In  the  poets,  the  plural  of  abstracts  occurs  in  the  sense  of  the  singular. 

1  From  crepes,  another,  and  xXt'o-is,  inflection,  i.  e.,  of  different  declensions. 
a  From  erepos,  another,  and  yevos,  gender,  i.  e.,  of  different  genders. 


54 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


131.  SINGULAR  WANTING. — Many  nouns  want  the  singular. 

1.  The  most  important  of  these  are : 

1)  Certain  personal  appellatives  applicable  to  classes :  mdjores,  forefathers ; 
posteri,  descendants ;  geminl,  twins ;  W)erl,  children. 

2)  Many  names  of  cities:  Athenae,  Athens;   Thebae,  Thebes;  Delphi, 
Delphi. 

3)  Many  names  of  festivals  :  Bacchanalia,  Olympia,  Saturnalia. 

4)  Arma,  arms ;  divitiae,  riches  ;  exsequiae,  funeral  rites ;  exuviae,  spoils ; 
Idus,  Ides ;  indutiae,  truce ;  Insidiae,  ambuscade  ;  manes,  shades  of  the  dead ; 
minae,  threats ;  moenia,  walls ;  munia,  duties ;  nuptiae,  nuptials ;  rlliquiae, 
remains. 

2.  An  individual  member  of  a  class  designated  by  these  plurals  may  be  de- 
noted by  units  ex  with  the  plural:  unus  ex  liberls,  one  of  the  children,  or  a  child. 

NOTE. — The  plural  in  names  of  cities  may  have  reference  to  the  several  parts  of  the 
city,  especially  as  ancient  cities  were  often  made  up  of  separate  villages.  So  in  the  names 
of  festivals,  the  plural  may  refer  to  the  various  games  and  exercises  which  together  con- 
stituted the  festival. 

1 32.  PLURAL  WITH  CHANGE  OF  MEANING. — Some  nouns  have  one  sig- 
nification in  the  singular  and  another  in  the  plural.     Thus : 


SINGULAR. 

Aedes,  temple; 
Auxilium,  help  ; 
Career,  prison,  barrier  ; 
Castrum,  castle,  hut ; 
Comitium,  name  of  a  part  of  the 

Roman  forum  ; 
Copia,  plenty,  force  ; 
Facultas,  ability  ; 
Finis,  end  ; 
Fortuna,  fortune  ; 
Gratia,  gratitude,  favor  ; 
Hortus,  garden  ; 
Impedimentum,  hindrance; 
Littera,  letter  of  alphabet ; 

Ludus,  play,  sport  ; 

Mos,  custom  ; 

Natalis  (dies),  birth-day  ; 

Opera,  work,  service  ; 

Pars,  part ; 

Rostrum,  beak  of  ship  ; 

Sal,  salt; 


PLURAL. 

aedes,  (1)  temples,  (2)  a  house.1 

auxilia,  auxiliaries. 

carceres,  barriers  of  a  race-course. 

castra,  camp. 

comitia,  the  assembly  held  in  the  comitium. 

copiae,  (1)  stores,  (2)  troops. 

facilitates,  wealth,  means. 

fines,  borders,  territory. 

fortunae,  possessions,  wealth. 

gratiae,  thanks. 

horti,  (1)  gardens,  (2)  pleasure-grounds. 

impedimenta,  (1)  hindrances,  (2)  baggage. 

litterae,  (1)  letters  of  alphabet,  (2)  epistle, 

writing,  letters,  literature.      • 
ludi,  (I)  plays,  (2)  public  spectacle. 
mores,  manners,  character. 
natales,  pedigree,  parentage. 
operae,  workmen. 
partes,  (1)  parts,  (2)  a  party. 
rostra,  (1)  beaks,  (2)  the  rostra  or  tribune 

in  Rome  (adorned  with  beaks), 
sales,  witty  sayings. 


1  Aedes  and  some  other  words  in  this  list,  it  will  be  observed,  have  in  the  plural  two 
significations,  one  corresponding  to  that  of  the  singular,  and  the  other  distinct  from  it 


HETEROCLITES.  55 

1 33.  DEFECTIVE  IN  CASE. — Some  nouns  are  defective  in  case : 

1.  In  the  Nona.,  Dat.,  and  Voc.  Sing. :  ,  opis, ,  opem, ,  ope, 

help  •  ?  vicis,1 ,  mcem, ,  vice,  change. 

2.  In  the  Nom.,  Gen.,  and  Voc.  Sing. : ,  precl,precem, ,prece,  prayer. 

3.  In  the  Nom.  and  .Voc.  Sing. :  ,  dapis,1  dapl,  dapem,  ,  dape, 

food ;  ,  frugis,  frugl,  frugem, ,fruge,  fruit. 

4.  In  the  Gen.,  Dat.,  and  Abl.  Plur. :  Most  nouns  of  the  fifth  Decl. ;  see  122. 
NOTE.— Many  neuters  are  also  defective  in  the  Gen.,  Dat.,  and  Abl.  Plur. :  far,  fel, 

mel,  pus,  rus,  tus,  etc.,  especially  Greek  neuters  in  os,  which  want  these  cases  also  in 
the  singular :  epos,  melos  ;  also  a  few  nouns  of  Decl.  IV. :  metus,  sitits,  etc. 

5.  In  the  Gen.  Plur. :  many  nouns  otherwise  entire,  especially  monosylla- 
bles :  nex,  pax,  pix  ;  cor,  cos,  ros  /  sal,  sol,  lux. 

134.  NUMBER  AND  CASE. — Some  nouns  want  one  entire  number  and 
certain  cases   of  the  other.      The  following  forms   occur:  fors,  forte, 
chance ;  lues,  luem,  lue,  pestilence  ;  dicionis,  diciom,  dicionem,  dicione,  sway. 
FOs,  right,  and  nefas,  wrong,  are  used  in  the  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  Sing. ; 
instar,  likeness,  nihil,  nothing,  and  opus,  need,  in  the  Nom.  and  Ace.; 
secus,  sex,  in  the  Ace.  only.     Many  verbal  nouns  in  u  and  a  few  other 
words  have  only  the  Ablative  Singular :  jussu,  by  order ;  mandatu,  by  com- 
mand ;  rogatu,  by  request ;  sponte,  by  choice,  etc. 

III.  HETEROCLITES. 

135.  Of  DECLENSIONS  II.  and  IV.  are  a  few  nouns  in  us  ;  see  119. 

1 36.  Of  DECLENSIONS  II.  and  III.  are — 

1.  Jugerum,  an  acre;  generally  of  the  second  Decl.  in  the  Sing.,  and  of 
the  third  in  the  Plur. :  jugerum,  jugerl ;  plural,  jugera,  jugerum,  jugeribus. 

2.  Vds,  a  vessel ;  of  the  third  Decl.  in  the  Sing,  and  of  the  second  in  the 
Plur. :  vds,  vdsis  ;  plural,  vdsa,  vdsorum. 

3.  Plural  names  of  festivals  in  alia:  Bacchanalia,  Saturnalia;  which  are 
regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  but  sometimes  form  the  Gen.  Plur.  in  drum  of 
the  second.    Anclle,  a  shield,  and  a  few  other  words  have  the  same  peculiarity. 

137.  Of  DECLENSIONS  III.  and  V.  are — 

1.  Eequies,  rest;  which  is  regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  but  also  takes  the 
forms  requiem  and  requie  of  the  fifth. 

2.  Fames,  hunger;  regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  except  in  the  Ablative, 
fame,  of  the  fifth  (not/am*,  of  the  third). 

1 38.  FORMS  IN  ia  AND  ies. — Many  words  of  four  syllables  have  one 
form  in  ia  of  Decl.  I.,  and  one  in  ies  of  Decl.  V. :  luxuria,  luxuries,  lux- 
ury ;  materia,  materies,  material. 

1 39.  FORMS  IN  us  AND  um. — Many  nouns  derived  from  verbs  have  one 
form  in  t*s  of  Decl.  IV.,  and  one  in  um  of  Decl.  II. :  conatus,  cdnatum, 
attempt ;  eventus,  eventum,  event. 

1  Defective  also  in  the  Gen.  Plur. 


56  ADJECTIVES. 

1 40.  Many  words  which  have  but  one  approved  form  in  prose,  admit 
another  in  poetry :  juventm  (utis),  youth ;   poetic,  juventa  (ae) :  senectics 
(utis),  old  age;   poetic,  senecta  (ae):  paupertas  (atis),  poverty;   poetic, 
pauperies  (el). 

IV.  HETEROGENEOUS  NOUNS. 

141.  MASCULINE  AND  NEUTER. — Some  masculines  take  in  the  plural  an 
additional  form  of  the  neuter  gender : 

Jocus,  m.,  jest ;  plural,  jocl,  m. ,  joca,  n. 

Locus,  m.,  place ;  plural,  loci,  m.,  topics,  loca,  n.,  places. 

142.  FEMININE  AND  NEUTER. — Some  feminines  take  in  the  plural  an 
additional  form  of  the  neuter  gender : 

Carbasus,  f.,  linen ;  plural,  carbasl,  f.,  carbasa,  n. 

Margarita,  f.,  pearl ;  plural,  margarltae,  f.,  margarita,  n. 

Ostrea,  f.,  oyster;  plural,  ostreae,  f.,  ostrea,  n. 

1 43.  NEUTER  AND  MASCULINE  OR  FEMININE. — Some  neuters  take  in  the 
plural  a  different  gender.     Thus : 

1.  Some  neuters  become  masculine  in  the  plural : 

Caelum,  n.,  heaven ;  plural,  caell,  m. 

2.  Some  neuters  generally  become  masculine  in  the  plural,  but  sometimes 
remain  neuter  : 

Frenum,  n.,  bridle ;  plural,  frenl,  m.,  frena,  n. 

Rostrum,  n.,  rake ;  plural,  rdstri,  m.,  rostra,  n. 

3.  Some  neuters  become  feminine  in  the  plural : 

Epulum,  n.,  feast ;  plural,  epulae,  f. 

144.  FORMS  IN  us  AND  um. — Some  nouns  of  the  second  declension 
have  one  form  in  us  masculine,  and  one  in  um  neuter :  clipeus,  clipcum, 
shield ;  commentarim,  commentarium,  commentary. 

1 45.  HETEROGENEOUS  HETEROCLITES. — Some  heteroclites  are  also  hete- 
rogeneous :  conatus  (us),  conatum  (I),  effort ;  menda  (ae),  mendum  (I),  fault. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ADJECTIVES. 

146.  THE  adjective  is  the  part  of  speech  which  is  used 
to  qualify  nouns  :  bonus,  good ;  mdgnus,  great. 

NOTE. — The  form  of  the  adjective  in  Latin  depends  in  part  upon  the  gender  of  the 
noun  which  it  qualifies:  bonus puer,  a  good  boy;  bonapuella,  a  good  girl;  bonum  Urn- 
plum,  a  good  temple.  Thus,  in  the  Nom.  Sing.,  bonus  is  the  form  of  the  adjective  when 
used  with  masculine  nouns,  bona  with  feminine,  and  bonum  with  neuter. 


ADJECTIVES. 


57 


147.  Some  adjectives  are  partly  of  the  first  declension 
and  partly  of  the  second,  while  all  the  rest  are  entirely  of 
the  third  declension. 

FIRST  AND  SECOND  DECLENSIONS  :  A  AND  O  STEMS. 


J.'-tO. 

-UU.UU.Oj    J/l/l/U'. 

SINGULAR. 

MABC. 

FEM. 

NEUT. 

Nom. 

bonus 

bona 

bonum 

Gen. 

bonl 

bonae 

bonl 

Dat. 

bond 

bonae 

bono 

Ace. 

bonum 

bonam 

bonum 

Voc. 

bone 

bona 

bonum 

Abl 

bono 

bona 

bono 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

bonl 

bonae 

bona 

Gen. 

bonorum 

bonarum 

bonorum 

Dat. 

bonls 

bonls 

bonls 

Ace. 

bonos 

bonus 

bona 

Voc. 

bonl 

bonae 

bona 

Abl. 

bonls 

bonls 

bonls 

149. 

Liber,  free.* 

SINGULAR. 

MASO. 

FEM. 

NETJT. 

Nom. 

liber 

libera 

liberum 

Gen. 

llberi 

liberae 

llberl 

Dat. 

llbero 

liberae 

llbero 

Ace. 

liberum 

llberani 

liberum 

Voc. 

liber 

libera 

liberum 

Abl. 

llbero 

libera 

llbero 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

llberi 

liberae 

libera 

Gen. 

llberorum 

Hberarum 

llberorum 

Dat. 

llberls 

llberls 

llberls 

Ace. 

Hberos 

llberas 

libera 

Voc. 

llberi 

liberae 

libera 

Abl. 

llberls 

llberls 

llberls 

1  BONUS  is  declined  in  the  Masc.  like  serous  of  Decl.  IT.  (51),  in  the  Fern,  like  mtn-sa 
of  Decl.  I.  (48),  and  in  the  Neut.  like  templum  of  Decl.  II.  (51).    The  stems  are  lono 
in  the  Masc.  and  Neut.,  and  "bond  in  the  Fern. 

2  LIBER  is  declined  in  the  Masc.  like  puer  (51),  and  in  the  Fern,  and  Neut.  like  "bonus. 

4 


58  ADJECTIVES. 

150.  Aeger,  sick.1 

SINGULAR. 

MASC.  FEM.  NEUT. 

Nom.  aeger  aegra  aegrum 

Gen.    aegrl  aegrae  aegrl 

Dat.    aegro  aegrae  aegro 

Ace.    aegrum  aegram  aegrum 

Voc.    aeger  aegra  aegrum 

All.    aegro  aegra  aegro 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  aegrl  aegrae  aegra 

Gen.    aegrorum  aegrarum  aegror 

Dat.    aegrls  aegrls  aegrls 

Ace.    aegro  s  aegras  aegra 

Voc.    aegrl  aegrae  aegra 

All.    aegrls  aegrls  aegrls 

NOTE. — Most  adjectives  in  er  are  declined  like  aeger,  but  the  following  in 
er  and  ur  are  declined  like  liber  : 

1)  Asper,  rough ;  lacer,  torn ;  miser,  wretched ;  prosper,  prosperous ;  tener, 
tender ;  but  asper  sometimes  drops  the  e,  and  dexter,  right,  sometimes  retains 
it :  dexter,  dextera,  or  dextra. 

2)  Satur,  sated ;  satur,  satura,  saturum. 

3)  Compounds  infer  and  ger :  mortifer,  deadly  ;  cttiger,  winged. 

151.  IKKEGULAKITIES. — Nine   adjectives  have  in  the 
singular  lus 2  in  the  Genitive  and  I  in  the  Dative,  and  are 
declined  as  follows  : 

Alius,  another.  Solus,  alone. 


SINGULAR. 

MASC. 

FBM. 

NEUT, 

MASO. 

FEM. 

NETTT. 

/Torn. 

alius  3 

alia 

aliud3 

solus 

sola 

solum 

Gen. 

allus 

allus 

alms* 

sollus 

sollus 

sollus 

Dat. 

alii 

alii 

alii 

soli 

soli 

soli 

Ace. 

alium  " 

aliam 

aliud 

solum 

solam 

solum 

Voc. 

sole 

sola 

solum. 

Abl. 

alio 

alia 

alio 

solo 

sola 

solo 

1  AEGEB  i3  declined  in  the  masculine  like  ager  (51),  and  in  the  feminine  and  neuter 
like  bonus. 

2  /in  lus  is  often  shortened  by  the  poets;  regularly  so  in  atteriutin  dactylic  verse 
(609). 

3  Rarely  alls  and  aUd.    The  same  stem  appears  in  ali-quis  (190,  2),  some  one; 
ali-te)\  otherwise. 

4  For  alilus  by  contraction.    Alterius  often  supplies  the  place  of  al~tU8t 


PLURAL. 

aliae 

alia 

soli 

solae 

sola 

aliarum 

aliorum 

solorum 

solarum 

solorum 

alils 

alils 

soils 

soils 

soils 

alias 

alia 

solos 

solas 

sola 

soli 

solae 

sola 

alils 

alils 

soils 

soils 

soils 

ADJECTIVES.  59 

Nom*  alii 
Gen.    alionim 
Dat.    alils 
Ace.    alios 
Voc. 
AU.    alils 

1.  These  nine  adjectives  are :  alius,  o,  ud,  another ;  nullus,  a,  um,  no  one ; 
solus,  alone ;  totus,  whole ;  ullm,  any ;  unus*  one ;  alter,  -tera,  -terum?  the 
other 3 ;  uter,  -tra,  -trumf  which  (of  two) ;  neuter,  -tra,  -trum,*  neither. 

NOTE  1.— The  regular  forms  occasionally  occur  in  the  Gen.  and  Dat.  of  some  of  these 
adjectives. 

NOTB  2. — Like  uter  are  declined  its  compounds :  uterque,  utervw,  uterlibet,  uter- 
cunque.  In  alteruter  sometimes  both  parts  are  declined,  as  alterius  utrlus;  and 
sometimes  only  the  latter,  as  alterutrlus. 

THIRD  DECLENSION  :   CONSONANT  AND  I  STEMS. 

152.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes  : 

I.  Those  which  have  in  the  Nominative  Singular  three 
different  forms — one  for  each  gender. 

II.  Those  which  have  two  forms — the  masculine  and 
feminine  being  the  same. 

III.  Those  which  have  but  01^  form — the  same  for  all 
genders. 

153.  ADJECTIVES  OF  THREE  ENDINGS  in  this  declension 
have  the  stem  in  i,  and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


XXUClj    QIUjWjJ. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

MASC. 
acer6 

FEM. 
acris 

NETJT. 
acre 

Gen. 

acris 

acris 

acris 

Dat. 

acrl 

acrl 

acrl 

Ace. 

acrem 

acrem 

acre 

Voc. 

acer 

acris 

acre 

AU. 

acrl 

acrl 

acrl 

1  See  declension,  175. 

2  Gen.  alterius,  Dat.  alterl ;  otherwise  declined  like  liber  (149). 

3  Or  one  qf  two^  the  one. 

4  Gen.  utrlus,  Dat.  utrl ;  otherwise  like  aeger  (150).    Neuter  like  uter. 

6  ACER  is  declined  like  ignis  in  the  Masc.  and  Fern.,  and  like  mare  (63)  in  the  Neut, 
except  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing.,  Masc.,  and  in  the  Abl.  Sing. 

6  These  forms  in  er  are  like  those  in  er  of  Decl.  II.  in  dropping  the  ending  in  the 
Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  and  in  developing  final  r  into  er:  deer  for  acris,  stem,  ticri. 


60 


ADJECTIVES. 


MASC. 


PLURAL. 
FBM. 


Nom. 

Gen. 

Dal. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

Abl. 


acrium 
acribus 

acres,  Is 

acres 

acribus 


acrium 
acribus 

acres,  is 

acres 

acribus 


NETTT. 
acria 
acrium 
acribus 
acria, 
acria. 
acribus 


NOTE  1.  —  Like  ACEE  are  declined  : 

1)  Alacer,  lively;  campester,  level;  celeber,  famous;  celer*  swift;  equester,  eques- 
trian; paluster,  marshy;  pedester,  pedestrian;  puter,  putrid;  saluber,  healthful;  sil- 
vester,  woody  ;  terrester,  terrestrial  ;  volucer,  winged. 

2)  Adjectives  in  er  designating  the  months  :  October,  brisf 

NOTE  2.  —  In  the  poets  and  in  early  Latin  the  form  in  er,  as  deer,  is  sometimes  femi- 
nine, and  the  form  in  is,  as  dcris,  is  sometimes  masculine. 

154.  ADJECTIVES  OF  Two  ENDIXGS  are  declined  as 
follows  : 


Tristis,  sad.- 

Tristior,  sadder.* 

SINGULAR. 

M.  AND  F. 

NEUT. 

M.  AND  F. 

NEUT. 

Nom. 

tristis 

triste 

tristior 

tristius 

Gen. 

tristis 

tristis 

trlstioris 

tristioris 

Dot. 

tiistl 

tristl 

tristior! 

tristiorl 

Ace. 

tristem 

triste 

tristiorem 

tristius 

Voc. 

tristis 

triste       * 

tristior 

tristius 

AU. 

trtstl 

tristl 

tristiore  (I)  5 

tristiore  (l) 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

tristes 

tristia 

tristiorSs 

tristiora 

Gen. 

tristium 

tristium 

tristiorum 

tristiorum 

Dot. 

tristibus 

tristibus 

trlstioribus 

tristioribus 

Ace. 

tristes,  Is 

tristia 

tristiorSs  (is) 

tristiora 

Voc. 

tristes 

tristia 

tristiores 

tristiora 

Abl 

tristibus 

tristibus 

tristioribus 

tristioribus 

NOTE  1.— Like  tristior,  comparatives,  as  consonant  stems,  generally  have  the  Abl. 
Sing,  in  e.  sometimes  in  I,  the  Nom.  Plur.  Neut.  in  a,  and  the  Gen.  Plur.  in  um.  But 
compliires,  several,  has  Gen.  Plur.  complurium;  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  Plur.  Neut 
complura  or  compluria ;  see  Plu#,  165. 

NOTE  2.— In  poetry,  adjectives  in  is,  e,  sometimes  have  the  Abl.  Sing,  in  e  :  cognv- 
mine  from  cognominis,  of  the  same  name. 

1  This  retains  e  in  declension  :  celer,  celeris,  celere;  and  has  um  in  the  Gen.  Plur. 

2  Bee  also  77,  2,  note. 

3  Tristis  and  triste  are  declined  like  ucris  and  acre;  the  stem  is  trlsti. 

4  Tristior  is  the  comparative  (16O)  oftristis;  the  stem  was  originally  trlstios,  but 
it  has  been  modified  to  tristius  (61, 1)  and  tristidr  (31). 

6  Enclosed  endings  are  rare. 


ADJECTIVES. 


61 


155.  ADJECTIVES  OF  ONE  ENDING  generally  end  in  s  or 
but  sometimes  in  I  or  r. 


156.  Audax,  audacious.1 


Felix,  liappy.1 


M.  ANDF. 

NEUT. 

M.  AND  F. 

NEUT. 

Nom.  audax 

audax 

felix 

felix 

Gen.  audacis 

audacis 

felicis 

felicis 

Dat.    audacl 

audacl 

felicl 

felicl 

Ace.    audacem 

audax 

fellcem 

felix 

Voc.    audax 

audax 

felix 

felix 

All.    audacl  (e) 

audacl  (e) 

felicl  (e) 

felicl  (c) 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  audaces 

audacia 

felices 

fellcia 

Gen.  audacium 

audacium 

felicium 

felicium 

Dat.   audacitous 

audacitous 

felicitous 

felicitous 

Ace.    audaces  (Is) 

audacia 

fellces  (Is) 

fellcia 

Voc.   audaces 

audacia 

fellers 

fellcia 

Abl.    audacious 

audacitous 

felicitous 

felicitous 

157.  Amans,  loving. 


Prudens,  prudent. 


M.  AND  F. 

NKTTT. 

M.  AND  F. 

NEUT. 

Nom.  amans 

amans 

prudens 

prudens 

Gen.  amantis 

amantis  2 

prudentis 

prudentis  a 

Dat.    amantl 

amantl 

prudentl 

prudentl 

Ace.    amantem 

amans 

prudentem 

prudens 

Voc.   amans 

amans 

prudens 

prudens 

Abl.   am  ante  (I) 

amante  (1) 

prudentl  (e) 

prudentl  (e) 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  amantes 

amantia 

prudentes 

prudentia 

Gen.  amantium 

amantium 

prudentium 

prudentium 

Dat.   amantitous 

amantitous 

prudentitous 

prudentitous 

Ace.    amant^s  (Is) 

amantia 

prudentes  (Is) 

prudentia 

Voc.   amantes 

amantia 

prudentes 

prudentia 

Abl.    amantitous 

amantitous 

prudentitous 

prudentitous 

NOTE.— The  participle  amdns  differs  in  declension  from  the  adjective  prildens  only 
in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  where  the  participle  usually  has  the  ending  e,  and  the  adjective,  I. 

1  Observe  that  I  in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  and  ia,  ium,  and  Is  in  the  Plur.,  are  the  regular 
case-endings  for  i-stems ;  see  62  and  63. 

2  According  to  Eitschl,  Schmitz,  and  others,  the  e  which  is  long  in  prudens  before  na 
is  short  in  all  other  forms  of  the  word,  i.  e.,  before  nt.    In  the  same  manner  the  a  which 
is  long  in  amdns,  is  according  to  Eitschl  short  in  amantis,  amant'i,  etc. ;  see  p.  87,  foot- 
note 2.    See  also  Schmitz,  pp.  3-26;  Eitschl,  Ehein.  Museum,  xxxi.,  p.  483 ;  Muller,  p.  2T. 


62 


ADJECTIVES. 


Participles  used  adjectively  may  of  course  take  I.  A  few  adjectives  have  only  e  In  gen- 
eral use : — (1)  pauper,  paupere,  poor ;  pules,  pubere,  mature ;— (2)  those  in  es,  G. 
itis  or  idis :  ales,  deses,  dives,  sdspes,  superstet;  (3)  caelebs,  compos,  impos,  prlnceps. 


158.  Yetus,  old, 


Memor,  mindful. 


SINGULAR. 

M.  AND  F. 

NBUT. 

M.AKDR 

NBUT. 

Nom. 

vetua 

vetus 

memor 

memor 

Gen. 

veteris 

veteris 

memoris 

memoris 

Dat. 

veterl 

veterl 

memorl 

memorl 

Ace. 

veterem 

vetus 

memorem 

memor 

Voc. 

vetus 

vetus 

memor 

memor 

All 

vetere  (I) 

vetere  (1) 

memorl 

memorl 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

veteres 

vetera 

memoris 

Gen. 

Yeterum 

veterum 

memorum 

Dat. 

veteribns 

veterilms 

mernoribtis 

Ace. 

veter€s  (Is) 

vetera 

memorCs  (Is) 

Voc. 

veteres 

vetera 

memorfcs 

All. 

veterilms 

veterilms 

memorilms 

1.  NEUTER  PLURAL. — Many  adjectives  like  memor,  from  the  nature  of 
their  signification,  want  the  Neuter  Plural ;  all  others  have  the  ending  ia, 
as  feticia,  prudentia,  except  uber,  ubera,  fertile,  and  vetus,  vetera. 

2.  GENITIVE  PLURAL. — Most  adjectives  have  ium,  but  the  following 
have  um : 

1)  Adjectives  of  one  ending  with  only  e  in  the  Ablative  Singular  (157, 
note) :  paupw,  pauperum. 

2)  Those  with  the  Genitive  in  eris,  oris,  uris:   vetus,  veterum,  old; 
memor,  memorum,  mindful ;  cicur,  cicurum,  tame. 

3)  Those  in  ceps :  anceps,  ancipitum,  doubtful. 

4)  Those  compounded  with  substantives  which  have  um:  inops  (ops, 
opum),  inopum,  helpless.  » 

IRREGULAK  ADJECTIVES. 
159.  Irregular  adjectives  may  be — 

I.  INDECLINABLE  :  frug\  frugal,  good ;  riequam,  worthless ;  mllle,  thou- 
sand; see  176. 

II.  DEFECTIVE  :  (ceterus)  cetera,  ceterum,  the  other,  the  rest ;  (ludicer) 
tudicra,  ludicrum,  sportive ;  (sons)  sontis,  guilty ;  (seminex)  seminecis,  half 
dead ;  paucl,  ae,  a,  few,  used  only  in  the  Plural ;  see  also  158,  1. 

III.  HETEROCLITES. — Many  adjectives  have  two  distinct  forms,  one  in 
us,  a,  um,  of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  and  one  in  is  and  e  of  the 
third :  hilarus  and  hilaris,  joyful ;  exanimus  and  exanimis,  lifeless, 


COMPARISON.  63 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

160.  Adjectives  have  three  forms,  called  the  Positive 
degree,  the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative:  altus,  dl- 
tior,  altissimus,  high,  higher,  highest.     These  forms  denote 
different  degrees  of  the  quality  expressed  by  the  adjective. 

161.  The  Latin,  like  the  English,  has  two  modes  of  com- 
parison : 

I.  TERMIKATIOKAL  COMPARISON — by  endings. 

II.  ADVERBIAL  COMPARISON— by  adverbs. 

I.  TERMINATIONAL  COMPARISON. 

162.  Adjectives  are  regularly  compared  by  adding  to  the 
stem  of  the  positive  the  endings : 

COMPARATIVE.  SUPEBLATIVE. 

MASC.      FEM.     NEUT.  MASC.  FEM.  NETTT. 

ior       ior       ius  issimus       issima       issimum1 

altus,  altior,  altissimus,  high,  higher,  highest, 
levis,  levior,  levissimus,  light,  lighter,  lightest. 
NOTE.— •  VOWEL  STEMS  lose  their  final  vowel:  alto,  altior,  altissimus. 

1 63.  IRREGULAR  SUPERLATIVES. — Many  adjectives  with  regu- 
lar comparatives  have  irregular  superlatives.     Thus : 

1.  Those  in  er  add  rimus  to  this  ending:  *  deer,  acrior,  acerrimus,  sharp. 

NOTE. —  Vetus  has  veterrimus;  mdturus,  both  mdturrimus  and  mdturissimus ; 
dexter,  dextimus. 

2.  Six  in  ills  add  limus  to  the  stem :  * 

facilis,          difficilis,  easy,  difficult, 

similis,         dissimilis,         like,  unlike, 

gracilis,        humilis,  slender,        low: 

facilis,  facilior,  facillimus.  Imbecillis  has  imbeeillimus. 

3.  Four  in  rus  have  two  irregular  superlatives : 

exterus,  exterior,  extremus   and  extimus,  outward, 

Inferus,  inferior,  infimus       «^^!mus,  lower, 

superus,  superior,  supremus  and  summus,  upper, 

posterus,  posterior,  postremus  and  postumus,  next. 

1  The  superlative  ending  is-simus  is  probably  compounded  of  is,  from  ids,  the  original 
comparative  ending  (154,  foot-note  4),  and  simus  for  timus;  ios-timus  =  ios-simus  = 
is-simus.  After  I  and  r,  the  first  element  is  omitted,  and  s  assimilated :  facilis,  facil- 
simus,  facil-limus ;  deer,  dcer-simus,  dcer-rimus;  but  those  in  ilia  drop  the  final 
vowel  of  the  stem.  See  Bopp,  |§  291-30T;  Schleicher,  pp.  488-494;  Roby,  p.  Ixvi, 


64  COMPARISON. 

164.  Egenus,  provide,  and  compounds  in  dicus,  ficus,  and 
volus,  are  compared  with  the  endings  entior  and  entissimus,  as  if 
from  forms  in  ens: 

egenus,  egentior,  egentissimus,  needy, 

prSvidens,         providentior,         providentissirnus,         prudent, 
maledicus,          maledicentior,        maledicentissimus,        slanderous, 
munificus,          munificentior,        munificentissimus,        liberal, 
benevolus,         benevolentior,       benevolentissimus,       benevolent. 
Nvrz.—Miri/icissiTnus  occurs  as  the  superlative  ofmirificus,  wonderful. 

165.  SPECIAL  IRREGULARITIES  OF  COMPARISON. 

bonus,  melior,  optimus,  good, 

malus,  pejor,  pessimus,  bad, 

magnus,  major,  maximus,  ,/^^j 

parvus,  minor,  minimus,  small, 

multus,  plus,  plurimus,  much. 

NOTB  I.— Plils  is  neuter,  and  lias  in  the  singular  only  Norn,  and  Ace.  plus,  and  Gon. 
pluris.  In  the  plural  it  has  Nom.  and  Ace.  plures  (m.  and  f.),  plura  (n.),  Gen.  pluri- 
um,  Dat.  and  Abl.  pluribus. 

NOTE  2. — Dives,  friigl,  and  nequam  are  thus  compared : 

(  divitior,  divitissimus.  ) 

dives,  i  ,.  ^  >  rich. 

I  ditior,  ditissimus,     J 

frugT,  frugalior,  frugaUssimus,  frugal, 

nequam,  nequior,  nequissimus,  worthless. 

166.  POSITIVE  WANTING. 

citerior,         citimus,  nearer,       \      prior,  primus,  former, 


deterior,        detenimus,        worse, 
interior,         intimus,  inner, 


propior,        proximus,       nearer, 
ulterior,       ultimus,  farther. 


ocior,  ocissimus,          swifter,      \ 

167.  COMPARATIVE  WANTING. 

1.  In  a  few  participles  used  adjectively :  inwitus,  meritissimus,  deserving. 

2.  In  these  adjectives : 


dlversus,       dlversissimus,       different, 
falsus,  falsissimus,  false, 

inclutus,       inclutissiinus,       renowned, 


novus,      novissimus,       new, 
sacer,        sacerrimus,       sacred, 
vetus,       veterrimus,       old. 


invltus,         invitissimus,         unwilling, 

NOTE.— Many  participles  used  adjectively  are  compared  in  full :  amdns,  amantior, 
amantissimus,  loving;  doclus,  ddctior,  ddctissimus,  instructed,  learned. 

1 68.  SUPERLATIVE  WANTING. 

1.  In  most  verbals  in  ills  and  bills  :  docilis,  docilior,  docile. 

2.  In  many  adjectives  in  alls  and  ills :  capitalis,  capitalior,  capital. 

3.  In  alacer,  alacrior,  active ;  caecus,  blind ;  diutumw,  lasting ;  longln- 
guus,  distant ;  oplmus,  rich  ;  procllvis,  steep  ;  propinquus,  near  ;  salutaris, 
salutary,  and  a  few  others. 

4.  Three  adjectives  supply  the  superlative  thus  : 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES.  65 

adolescens,  adolescentior,  minimus  natu,1  young, 

juvenis,  junior,  minimus  natu,  young, 

senex,  senior,  maximus  natu,  old. 

169.  WITHOUT  TERMINATIONS  COMPARISON. 

1.  Many  adjectives,  from  the  nature  of  their  signification,  especially  such 
as  denote  material,  possession,  or  the  relations  of  place  and  time :  aureus, 
golden ;  paternus,  paternal ;  Eomdnus,  Eoman ;  aestlvus,  of  summer. 

2.  Most  adjectives  in  us  preceded  by  a  vowel:  idoneus,  suitable. 

3.  Many  derivatives  in  alls,  dris,  His,  iilus,  icus,  Inus,  drus:  mortdlis 
(mors),  mortal. 

4.  Albus,  white ;  claudus,  lame ;  ferns,  wild ;  lassus,  weary ;  vmrus,  won- 
derful, and  a  few  others. 

II.  ADVERBIAL  COMPARISON. 

170.  Adjectives  which  want  the  terminational  comparison,  form  the 
comparative  and  superlative,  when  their  signification  requires  it,  by  pre- 
fixing the  adverbs  magis,  more,  and  maxima,  most,  to  the  positive :  arduus, 
magis  arduus,  maxime  arduus,  arduous. 

1.  Other  adverbs  are  sometimes  used  with  the  positive  to  denote  different 
degrees  of  the  quality :  admodum,  valde,  oppido,  very ;  imprimis,  apprime,  in 
the  highest  degree.    Per  and  prae  in  composition  with  adjectives  have  the 
force  of  very :  perdiffidlis,  very  difficult ;  praecldrus,  very  illustrious. 

2.  Strengthening  particles  are  also  sometimes  used— (1)  With  the  com- 
parative :  etiam,  even,  multo,  longe,  much,  far :  etiam  diligentior,  even  more 
diligent ;  multo  diligentior,  much  more  diligent — (2)  "With  the  superlative  : 
multo,  longe,  much,  by  far;  quam,  as  possible:  multo  or  longe  dlligentissi- 
mus,  by  far  the  most  diligent ;  quam  diligentissimus,  as  diligent  as  possible. 

NUMERALS. 

171.  Numerals  comprise  numeral  adjectives  and  numeral 
adverbs.2 

1 72.  Numeral  adjectives  comprise  three  principal  classes : 

1.  CARDINAL  NUMBERS  :  unus,  one ;  duo,  two. 

2.  ORDINAL  NUMBERS  :  primus,  first ;  secundus,  second. 

3.  DISTRIBUTIVES  :  singuU,  one  by  one ;  llnl,  two  by 
two,  two  each,  two  apiece. 

173.  To  these  may  be  added— 

1  Smallest  or  youngest  in  age.    Natu  is  sometimes  omitted. 

a  The  first  ten  cardinal  numbers,  mllle,  primus,  secundus,  and  semel  (once),  four- 
teen words  in  all,  furnish  the  basis  of  the  Latin  numeral  system.  All  other  numerals  are 
formed  from  these  either  by  derivation  or  by  composition. 


66 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


1.  MULTIPLICATIVES,  adjectives  in  plex,  Gen.  plicis,  denoting  so  many 
fold :  simplex,  single ;  duplex,  double ;  triplex,  threefold. 

2.  PROPORTIONALS,  declined  like  bonus,  and  denoting  so  many  times  as 
great :  duplm,  twice  as  great ;  triplus,  three  times  as  great. 

174.  TABLE  OF  NUMEKAL  ADJECTIVES: 


CABDINALS. 

OBDINALS. 

DlSTBIBUTTVES. 

1.  unus,  una,  unum 

primus,  first 

singull,  one  ty  one 

2.  duo,  duae,  duo 

secundus,4  second, 

blnl,  two  by  two 

3.  tres,  tria 

tertius,  third 

ternl  (trim) 

4.  quattuor 

quartus,  fourth 

quaterni 

5.  qulnque 

qulntus,  fiftli 

quml 

6.  sex 

sextus 

senl 

7.  septem 

Septimus 

septSnl 

8.  octo 

octavus 

octOnl 

9.  novem 

nonus 

novgni 

10.  decem 

decimus 

denl 

11.  undecim 

undecimus 

undgni 

12.  duodeciin 

duodecimus 

duodenl 

13.  tredecim1 

tertius  decimus  5 

ternl  denl 

14.  quattuordecim 

quartus  decimus 

quaterni  denl 

15.  qulndecim 

qulntus  decimus 

quml  denl 

16.  sedecim  or  sexdecim  l 

sextus  decimus 

senl  denl 

17.  septendecim1 

Septimus  decimus 

septenl  denl 

18.  duode  vlgintl  2 

duode  vicSsimus  6 

duodevlcenl 

19.  undevigintl2 

unde  vicesimus  6 

undevlcenl 

20.  vlgintl 

vicesimus  7 

vlcSnl 

21  (  vlgintl  unus 
I  unus  et  vlgintl  3 

vicesimus  primus 
unus  et  vicesimus  3 

vlceni  singull 
singull  et  vlceni 

22  (vlgintl  duo 

vicesimus  secundus 

vlceni  blnl 

(duo  et  vlgintl 

alter  et  vicesimus 

blnl  et  vlceni 

30.  trlginta 

trice  simus7 

trlcenl 

40.  quadraginta 

quadragesimus 

quadragenl 

50.  quinquaginta 

quinquagesimus 

qulnquageni 

60.  sexaginta 

sexagesimus 

sexagenl 

70.  septuaginta 

septuage  simus 

septuagenl 

80.  octoginta 

octogesimus 

octogenl 

1  Sometimes  with  the  parts  separated :  decent  et  tres  ;  decem  et  sex,  etc. 

2  Literally  two  from  twenty,  one  from  twenty,  by  subtraction ;  but  these  numbers 
may  be  expressed  by  addition  :  decem  et  octo;  decem  et  novem  ;  so  28,  29 ;  88,  39,  etc., 
either  by  subtraction  from  triginta,  etc.,  or  by  addition  to  mginti. 

3  If  the  tens  precede  the  units,  et  is  omitted,  otherwise  it  is  generally  used.    So  in 
English  cardinals,  twenty-one,  one  and  twenty. 

4  Alter  is  often  used  for  secundus. 

6  Decimus,  with  or  without  et,  may  precede :  decimus  et  tertius  or  decimus  tertius. 

6  Sometimes  expressed  by  addition :  oetavus  decimus  and  nonus  decimus. 

7  Sometimes  written  with  g:  vlgesimus;  trlglsimus. 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


90. 

100. 

101, 

200. 

300. 

400. 

500. 

600. 

TOO. 

800. 

900. 

1,000. 

2,000. 

100,000. 

1,000,000. 


CARDINALS. 
nonaginta 
centum 
|  centum  unus 
!  centum  et  unus  1 
ducenti,  ae,  a 
trecentl 
quadringenti 
qulngentl 
sescenti  a 
septingenti 
octingentl 
nongentl 
mille 

duo  milia 3 
centum  milia 
decies  centena 
mllia* 


ORDINALS. 
nonage  simus 
centesimus 
centesimus  primus 
centesimus  et  primus 
ducentesimus 
trecentesimus 
quadringentesimus 
quingentesimus 
sescentesimus  2 
septingentesimus 
octingentesimus 
nongente  simus 
mlllesimus 
bis  mlllesimus 
centies  mlllesimus 
decies  centies  mllle'si- 
mus 


DISTRIBUTIVES. 
nonageni 
centeni 

centenl  singull 
centeni  et  singull 
duceni 
treceni 
quadringenl 
quingenl 
sescenl 2 
septingenl 
octingeni 
nongeni 
singula  milia s 
blna  milia 
centena  milia 
decies  centena  mi- 
lia 


1.  ORDINALS  with  pars,  part,  expressed  or  understood,  may  be  used  to 
express  fractions :  tertia  pars,  a  third  part,  a  third ;  quarto,  pars,  a  fourth ; 
duae  tertiae,  two  thirds. 

NOTE.— -Cardinal  numbers  with  paries  are  used  in  fractions  when  the  denominator  i& 
larger  than  the  numerator  by  one :  duae  paries,  two  thirds,  ires  paries,  three  fourths,  etc. 

2.  DISTRIBUTIVES  are  used — 

1)  To  show  the  number  of  objects  taken  at  a  time,  often  best  rendered 
by  adding  to  the  cardinal  each  or  apiece:  ternos  denarios  acceperunt,  they 
received  each  three  denarii,  or  three  apiece.    Hence — 

2)  To  express  Multiplication :  decies  centena  m/ilia,  ten  times  a  hundred 
thousand,  a  million. 

3)  Instead  of  Cardinals,  with  nouns  plural  in  form,  but  singular  in  sense  : 
Una  castra,  two  camps.    Here  for  singuU  and  ternl,  unl  and  trml  are  used : 
unae  lltterae,  one  letter ;  trinae  lltterae,  three  letters. 

4)  Sometimes  of  objects  spoken  of  in  pairs :  Unl  scyphl,  a  pair  of  goblets ; 
and  in  the  poets  with  the  force  of  cardinals :  Una  hastllia,  two  spears. 

3.  Poets  use  numeral  adverbs  (181)  very  freely  in  compounding  numbers : 
bis  sex,  for  duodecim  ;  Us  septem,  for  quattuordecim. 

4.  Sescenti  and  mille  are  sometimes  used  indefinitely  for  any  large  num- 
ber, as  one  thousand  is  used  in  English. 

1  In  compounding  numbers  above  100,  units  generally  follow  tens,  tens  hundreds,  etc., 
as  in  English ;  but  the  connective  et  is  either  omitted,  or  used  only  between  the  two 
highest  denominations  :  mille  centum  vlginti  or  mille  et  centum  vlgintl,  1120. 

a  Often  incorrectly  written  sexcentl,  sexcentesimu*,  and  sexcem. 

3  Often  written  mlllia.    For  duo  mllia,  Una  mllia  or  Us  mille  is  sometimes  used. 

4  Literally  "ten  times  a  hundred  thousand";  the  table  might  be  carried  up  to  any 
desired  number  by  using  the  proper  numeral  adverb  with  centena  mllia :  centies  cen- 
tena mllia,  10,000,000 ;  sometimes  in  such  combinations  centena  mllia  is  understood, 
and  the  adverb  only  is  expressed,  and  sometimes  centum  mllia  is  used. 


68 


DECLENSION  OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


DECLENSION  OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 
175.  Unus,  Duo,  and  Tres  are  declined  as  follows: 
Unus,  one. 


SINGULAR. 

Worn,  unus 

una 

unum 

Gen.    unius 

unius 

unius 

Dat.    uni 

uni 

uni 

Ace.    unum 

unam 

unum 

Voc.    une 

una 

unum 

Abl    uno 

una 

uno 

PLURAL. 

uni  unae  una 

unorum  unarum  unorum 

urns  urns  urns 

unos  unas  una 

uni  unae  una 

unis  urns  urns 


Duo,  two. 

Nom.  duo  duae  duo1 

Gen.    duorum  duarum  duorum2 

Dat.    duobus  duabus  duobus 

Ace.    duos,  duo  duas  duo 

Voc.    duo  duae  duo 

Abl.    duobus  duabus  duobus 


Tres,  three. 


tres,  m.  and  f. 

trium 

tribus 

tres,  tris 

tres 

tribus 


tria,  n. 

trium 

tribus 

tria 

tria 

tribus 


NOTE  1.— The  plural  of  unus  in  the  sense  of  alone  may  be  used  with  any  noun  :  Unl 
Ubil,  the  Ubii  alone ;  but  in  the  sense  of  one,  it  is  used  only  with  nouns  plural  in  form, 
but  singular  in  sense :  una  castra,  one  camp ;  iinae  lltterae,  one  letter. 

NOTE  2.— Like  duo  is  declined  ambo,  both. 

NOTE  3. — Multl,  many,  and  pluriml,  very  many,  are  indefinite  numerals,  and  as 
such  generally  want  the  singular.  But  in  the  poets  the  singular  occurs  in  the  sense  of 
many  a :  multa  Twstia,  many  a  victim. 

1 76.  The  Cardinals  from  quattuor  to  centum  are  indeclinable. 

1 77.  Hundreds  are  declined  like  the  plural  of  bonus :  ducenfl,  ae,  a. 

1 78.  Mille  as  an  adjective  is  indeclinable ;  as  a  substantive  it  is  used 
in  the  singular  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative,3  but  in  the  plural  it  is 
declined  like  the  plural  of  mare  (63) :  milia*  milium,  mllibus. 

NOTE.— -With  the  substantive  mllle,  mllia,  the  name  of  the  objects  enumerated  is 
generally  in  the  Genitive :  mllle  hominum,  a  thousand  men  (of  men) ;  but  if  a  declined 
numeral  intervenes  it  takes  the  case  of  that  numeral :  tria  mllia  trecentl  militea,  three 
thousand  three  hundred  soldiers. 

1 79.  Ordinals  are  declined  like  bonus,  and  distributives  like  the  plural 
of  bomis,  but  the  latter  often  have  um  instead  of  drum  in  the  Genitive : 
blnum  for  blnorum. 


1  In  the  ending  o  in  duo  and  ambo  (1 75,  note  2),  we  have  a  remnant  of  the  dual  num- 
ber which  has  otherwise  disappeared  from  the  Latin,  though  preserved  in  Greek  and  San- 
skrit.   Compare  the  Sanskrit  dva,  the  Greek  Sv'o,  the  Latin  duo,  and  the  English  two. 

2  Instead  of  duorum  and  duarum,  duum  is  sometimes  used. 

3  Barely  in  other  cases  in  connection  with  mlUum  or  mllibus, 

*  Generally  written  with  one  I ;  mlHa,  but  eosnctimcs  with  two :  mlllia, 


NUMERAL  ADVERBS. 


69 


180.  NUMERAL  SYMBOLS: 


AEABIC. 
1. 


ROMAN.  |  AKABIC. 


9. 
10. 
11. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 


12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
30. 
40. 


ROMAN. 

AEABIO. 

EOMAN. 

XII. 

50. 

L. 

XIII. 

60. 

LX. 

XIV. 

70. 

LXX. 

XV. 

80. 

LXXX. 

XVI. 

90. 

XC. 

XVII. 

100. 

C. 

XVIII. 

200. 

CO. 

XIX. 

500. 

10,  or  D. 

XX. 

600. 

DC. 

XXX. 

1,000. 

CIO,  or  M.i 

XL. 

10,000. 

CCIOO. 

1.  LATIN  NUMERAL  SYMBOLS  are  combinations  of:  1  =  1;  V  =  5  ;  X  =  10; 
L  =  50  ;  C  =  100  ;  10  or  D  =  500  ;  CIO  or  M  =  1,000.2 

2.  IN  THE  COMBINATION  OF  THESE  SYMBOLS,  except  10,  observe  — 

1)  That  the  repetition  of  a  symbol  doubles  the  value  :  II  =  2  ;  XX  =  20. 

2)  That  any  symbol  standing  before  one  of  greater  value,  subtracts  its 
own  value,  but  that  after  one  of  greater  value,  it  adds  its  own  value  :  V  =  5  ; 


3.  IN  THE  COMBINATION  OF  10  observe— 

1)  That  each  0  (inverted  C)  after  10  increases  the  value  tenfold  :  10  =  500  ; 
100  =  500  x  10  =  5,000  ;  1000  =  5,000  x  10  =  50,000. 

2)  That  these  numbers  are  doubled  by  placing  C  the  same  number  of 
times  before  I  as  0  stands  after  it  :  10  =  500  ;  CIO  =  500  x  2  =  1,000  ;  100  = 
5,000  ;  CCIOO  =  5,000  x  2  =  10,000. 

3)  That  smaller  symbols  standing  after  these  add  their  value  :  10  =  500  ; 
IOC  =  600  ;  IOCC  =  700. 

NUMERAL  ADVERBS. 
181.  To  numerals  belong  also  numeral  adverbs  : 


1.  semel,  once 
2.  bis,  twice 
3.  ter,  three  times 
4.  quater 

5.  quinquies3 
6.  sexies 
7.  septic  s 
8.  octies 

9.  novies 
10.  decies 
11.  undecies 
12.  duodecies 

1  Thousands  are  sometimes  denoted  by  a  line  over  the  symbol :  II  =  2,000 ;  V  =  5,000. 

2  The  origin  of  these  symbols  is  uncertain.    According  to  Mommsen,  /  is  the  out- 
stretched finger ;  F,  the  open  hand ;  X,  the  two  hands  crossed  ;  Z,  the  open  hand  like  V, 
but  in  a  different  position ;  CIO  is  supposed  to  be  a  modification  of  the  Greek  $,  not  other- 
wise used  by  the  Romans,  afterward  changed  to  M;  Id,  afterward  changed  to  D,  is  a 
part  of  CIO  ;  Cia  also  supposed  to  be  a  modification  of  the  Greek  0,  but  it  maybe  the 
initial  letter  of  centum,  as  .3f  may  be  that  ofmllle. 

3  In  adverbs  formed  from  cardinal  numbers,  iea  is  the  approved  ending,  though  iena 
often  occurs.    In  adverbs  from  indefinite  numeral  adjectives  iena  is  the  approved  ending 
totien*  (from  tot),  so  often;  quotient  (from  quot),  how  often,    See  Bnunbacb,  p.  14, 


PRONOUN 8. 


j  terdecies 

20.  vlcies 

'ttredecies 

21.  semel  et  vlcies 

(  quaterdeciSs 

22.  bis  et  vlcies 

'(  quattuordecies 

30.  trlcies 

5  j  qulnquigsdeciSs 

40.  quadragies 

'  1  qulndecigs 

50.  qulnquagies 

(  sexiesdecifis 
(sedecies 

60.  sexagies 
70.  septuagies 

17.  septifisdecies 

80.  octogies 

j  duodevlcies 
(octiesdeciSs 

90.  nonagigs 
100.  centies 

jtlnde  vlcies 
'Inovigsdeci^s 

101.  centies  semel 
102.  centies  bis 

200.  ducentiSs 
300.  trecenties 
400.  quadringenties 
500.  qumgenties 
600.  sescenties 
700.  septingecties 
800.  octingenties 
9QO  moningenties 

'  InOngentiSs 
1,000.  mlllies  i 
2,000.  bis  mlllies 
100,000.  centies  mlllies 
1,000,000.  mlllies  mlllies 

NOTE  1.— In  compounds  of  units  and  tens,  the  unit  with  et  generally  precedes,  as  in 
the  table :  bis  et  vlciea  ;  the  tens,  however,  with  or  without  et,  may  precede. 

NOTE  2.— Another  class  of  numeral  adverbs  in  um  or  b  is  formed  from  the  ordinals : 
^  prlmd%  for  the  first  time,  in  the  first  place  ;  tertium,  tertio,  for  the  third  time. 


CHAPTEK    III 
PRONOUNS. 

182.  IN"  construction,  Pronouns2  are  used  either  as  Sub- 
stantives: ego,  I,  in,  thou;  or  as  Adjectives:  meus,  my, 
tuus,  your. 

183.  Pronouns  are  divided  into  six  classes  : 

1.  Personal  Pronouns  :  tu9  thou. 

2.  Possessive  Pronouns  :  meus,  my. 

3.  Demonstrative  Pronouns  :  Tnc,  this. 

4.  Eelative  Pronouns  :  qul,  who. 

5.  Interrogative  Pronouns  :  quis,  who  ? 

6.  Indefinite  Pronouns  :  aliquis,  some  one. 

I.  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

184.  Personal  Pronouns,3  so  called  because  they  desig- 
nate the  person  of  the  noun  which  they  represent,  are  : 

1  MilliZ*  is  often  used  indefinitely  like  the  English  a  thousand  times. 

a  But  in  their  signification  and  use,  Pronouns  differ  widely  from  ordinary  substantiveB 
and  adjectives,  as  they  never  name  any  object,  action,  or  quality,  but  simply  point  out 
its  relation  to  the  speaker,  or  to  some  other  person  or  thing;  see  314,  II.,  with  foot-note. 

1  Also  called  Substantive  Pronouns,  because  they  are  always  used  substantively. 


PRONOUNS.  71 

Ego,  J.  Tu,  thou.         Sui,  of  himself,  etc.1 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.  ego2  tu 

Gen.  mel  tui  sul1 

Dat.  mihi  or  mi  tibi  sibi 

^lw.  me  te  se 

Foe.  tu 

Abl.  me  te  se 


PLURAL. 

Nom.  nos 

VOS 

(nostrum 

vestrum  3) 

'  (nostri 

vestri       ) 

SUI 

Dat.   nobis 

vobls 

Bib! 

Ace.    nos 

VOS 

se 

Voc. 

VOS 

All.    nobis 

vobls 

se 

1.  The  CASE-ENDINGS  of  Pronouns  differ  considerably  from  those  of  Nouns, 

2.  Sui,  of  himself ',  etc.,  is  often  called  the  Reflexive  pronoun. 

3.  EMPHATIC  FORMS  in  met  occur,  except  in  the  Gen.  Plur. :  egomet,  I  my- 
self; temet,  etc.    But  the  Nom.  tu  has  tute  and  tutemet,  not  tumet. 

4.  KEDUPLICATED  FORMS. — Sese,  tete.^  meme,  for  se,  te,  me. 

5.  ANCIENT  AND  BARE  FORMS. — Mis  for  mel ;  tls  for  tul ;  med  and  mept* 
forme;  ted  for  te;  sed,  sepse,  for  se. 

6.  CUM,  when  used  with  the  ablative  of  a  Personal  Pronoun,  is  appended 
to  it :  mecum,  tecum. 

II.  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 

1 85.  From  Personal  pronouns  are  formed  the  Possessives: 
meus,  a,  um,  my ;  noster,  tra,  tram,  our; 

tuus,    a,  um,  thy,  your ;       vester,  tra,  trum,  your ; 
suus,   a,  um,  Ms,  hers,  its;  suus,     a,     um,     their. 

1  Of  himself,  herself,  itself.    The  Nominative  is  not  used. 

2  Ego  has  no  connection  in  form  with  mel,  mihi,  etc.,  but  it  corresponds  to  the 
Greek  cyu>v,  eyw.    The  oblique  cases  of  ego  and  tu  in  the  singular  are  derived  from  the 
Indo-European  roots  ma  and  tva.    Compare  the  Accusative  Singular  of  each  in — 

SANSKBIT.  GEEEK.  LATIN.  ENGLISH. 

ma-m  or  ma,  /xe,  me,  me. 

tva-m  or  tva,  re  or  <re,  te,  thee. 

Sm,  sibi,  se,  in  both  numbers  are  formed  from  the  root  sva.    The  origin  of  the  plural 
forms  of  ego  and  tu  is  obscure.    See  Papillon,  pp.  142-149;  Kuhner,  I.,  pp.  878-882. 

3  Vestrum  and  vestri  are  also  written  nostrum  and  vostrl,  though  less  correctly. 
Mel,  tui,  sm,  nostri,  and  vestri,  are  in  form  strictly  Possessives  in  the  Gen.  Sing.,  but  by 
use  they  have  become  Personal.  Nostrl  and  vestri  have  also  become  Plural.  Thus,  memo* 
vestri,  'mindful  of  you,'  means  literally  mindful  oft/ours,  i.  e.,  of  your  welfare,  interest. 
Nostriim  and  vestrum,  for  nostrorum  and  vestrorum,  are  also  Possessives ;  see  185. 


72  PRONOUNS. 

NOTE  1. — Possessives  are  declined  as  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions; 
but  meus  has  in  the  Vocative  Singular  Masculine  generally  ml,  sometimes  meus,  and  in 
the  Genitive  Plural  sometimes  meum  instead  of  medrum.1 

NOTE  2. — Emphatic  forms  in  pte  and  met  occur :  suapte,  suamet. 

NOTE  3. — Other  possessives  are:  (1)  cujus,  a,  um,*  *  whose,'  and  cvjus,  a,  um,3 
'  whose  ? '  declined  like  bonus,  and  (2)  the  Patrials,  nostrds,  Genitive  dtis,  *  of  our  coun- 
try,' vestrds,  Genitive  dtis,  '  of  your  country,'  and  cujds,  Genitive  dtis,  '  of  whose  coun- 
try,' declined  as  adjectives  of  Declension  III. 

III.  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

1 86.  Demonstrative  Pronouns,  so  called  because  they  spe- 
cify the  objects  to  which  they  refer,  are  declined  as  follows: 
I.  Hie,  this.4' 


MABC. 

FEM. 

NBUT. 

MASC. 

FEM. 

NEUT. 

Nom.  hie 

haec 

hoc 

hi 

hae7 

haec 

Gen.  hujus 

hujus 

hujus  5 

horum 

harum 

horum 

Dat.    huicr 

huic 

huic 

his 

his 

his 

Ace.    hunc 

hanc 

hoc6 

hos 

has 

haec 

All.    hoc 

hae 

hoc 

his 

his 

his 

H.  Iste, 

that,  that 

of  yours;* 

see  450. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

MASO. 

FEM. 

NEUT. 

ItiASC. 

FEM. 

NEUT. 

Nom.  iste 

ista 

istud 

isti 

istae 

ista 

Gen.  istius 

istius 

istius6 

istorum 

istarum 

istorum 

Dat.    isti 

isti 

isti 

istis 

istis 

istis 

Ace.    istum 

istam 

istud  6 

istos 

istas 

ista 

Abl    isto 

ista 

isto 

istis 

istis 

istis 

1  In  early  Latin  tows  is  sometimes  written  tovos,  and  suus,  sovos. 

2  From  the  relative  qul,  eft  jus  (187),  also  written  quoins. 

2  From  the  interrogative  quis,  ciijus  (188),  also  written  quoins. 

4  The  stem  of  hie  is  ho,  ha,  which  by  the  addition  of  i,  another  pronominal  stem, 
seen  in  i-s,  'he,'  becomes  in  certain  cases  hi  (for  ho-i),  hae  (for  ha-i),  as  in  hl-c,  hae-c. 
The  forms  ho,  ha,  appear  in  hd-c,  ha-nc.    Ancient  and  rare  forms  of  this  pronoun  are 
?iec  (for  Ate),  hdius  (for  hujus),  hoic,  hoice  (for  huic),  hone  (for  hunc),  heis,  heisce,  his, 
hlsee  (for  hlce,  hi),  hlbus  (for  his). 

5  The  Genitive  suffix  is  us,  appended  to  the  stem  after  the  addition  of  i  (foot-note  4) : 
ho-i-us,  hujus  (i  changed  to.;  between  two  vowels,  28) ;  isto-i-us,  istius  (i  retained  after 
a  consonant).    The  suffix  us,  originally  a«,  is  in  origin  the  same  as  the  suffix  is  in  the 
third  declension.    In  one  the  original  vowel  a  is  weakened  to  u,  and  in  the  other  to  i. 
See  Wordsworth,  p.  95 ;  Corssen,  I.,  p.  SOT. 

In  prose  i  in  the  ending  lus  is  generally  long. 

6  Demonstrative,  Kelative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefinite  Pronouns  want  the  Vocative. 

7  Here  the  form  with  c,  haec,  is  sometimes  used. 

8  The  stem  of  iste  (for  istus)  is  isto  in  the  Masc.  and  Neut.,  and  ista  in  the  Fern.    O 
is  weakened  to  e  in  iste  (94, 1,  note)  and  to  u  in  wtu-d.    Ancient  and  rare  forms  of  isto 


PRONOUNS. 


III.  Ille,  that,1  that  one,  Tie,  is  declined  like  iste;  see  II.  on  the 
preceding  page. 

IV.  Is,  he,  this,  that.* 


MASO. 

FEM. 

NEUT. 

Nbm.  is 

ea 

id 

Gen.    ejus 
Dat.    el 

ejus 
eT 

ejus 

Ace.    eum 

earn 

id4 

Abl.    eo 

ea 

eo 

PLURAL. 

MASC. 

FEM. 

NEUT. 

el,  ii 

eae 

ea 

eorum 

earum 

eorum 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

eos 

eas 

ea 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

els,  ils 

V.  Ipse,  ; 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

MASC. 

FEM. 

NEUT. 

MASC. 

FEM. 

NEUT. 

Nom.  ipse 

ipsa 

ipsum 

ipsl 

ipsae 

ipsa 

Gen.    ipsius 

ipsius 

ipsius 

ipso  rum 

ipsarum 

ipsorum 

Dat.    ipsl 

ipsl 

ipsl 

ipsls 

ipsls 

ipsls 

Ace.    ipsum 

ipsam 

ipsum 

ipsos 

ipsas 

ipsa 

Abl.    ipso 

ipsa 

ipso 

ipsls 

ipsls 

ipsls 

VI.  Idem, 

the  same.  8 

are  istus  (for  iste\  forms  in  I,  ae,  I  (for  lus)  in  the  Genitive,  and  in  o,  ae,  o  (for  I)  in  the 
Dat.  :  isti  (for  istlua),  isto  (for  isti),  istae  (for  istius  or  istl). 

1  The  stem  Qfille  (for  illus)  is  illo,  ilia.    Ancient  and  rare  forms  are  (1)  illus  (for 
ille),  forms  in  f,  ae,  I  (for  lus)  in  the  Genitive  Singular,  and  in  5,  ae,  o  (for  *)  in  the 
Dative  Singular  :  illl  (for  illius),  etc.  ;  (2)  forms  from  ollus  or  olle  (for  those  from  ille)  : 
oW?w,  olle,  olla,  etc. 

2  The  stem  of  is  is  i,  strengthened  in  most  of  its  case-forms  to  eo,  ea.    Ancient  or 
rare  forms  of  is  are,  eis  (for  is)  ;  e-i-ei,  ei-ei,  i-ei,  eae  (for  Dative  Singular  If)  ;  im,  em 
(for  eum)  ;  e-eis,  i-eis,  eis  (for  Nominative  Plural  el)  ;  e-i-eis,  ei-eis,  e-eis,  ibua,  edbus 
(for  el*).    To  these  may  be  added  a  few  rare  forms  from  a  root  of  kindred  meaning,  so, 
sa:  sum,  sam=eum,  earn;  sos,  sds=eos,  eas.    This  root  appears  in  ip-sus,  ip-sa,  ip- 
sum.   Si,  if,  and  sl-c,  thus,  are  probably  Locatives  from  this  root  or  from  sva,  the  root 


3  Sometimes  a  diphthong  in  poetry.    In  the  same  -way  the  plural  forms  el,  it,  els,  its, 
are  sometimes  monosyllables.    Instead  of  il  and  ils,  I  and  is  are  sometimes  written. 

4  See  page  72,  foot-note  6. 

6  Ipse^for  ipsus  =  i-pe-sus)  is  compounded  of  is  or  its  stem  i,  the  intensive  particle 
pe,  '  even,'  '  indeed,'  and  the  pronominal  root  so,  sa,  mentioned  in  foot-note  2  above. 
The  stem  is  ipso,  ipsa,  but  forms  occur  with  the  first  part  declined  and  pse  unchanged  : 
eum-pse,  eam-pse,  etc.  ;  sometimes  combined  with  re  :  redpse  =  re-edpse  =  re  ipsd,  4in 
reality.'  Ipsus  (for  ipse)  is  not  uncommon. 

6  In  idem,  compounded  of  is  and  dem,  only  the  first  part  is  declined.  Isdem  is 
shortened  to  Idem,  iddem  to  idem,  and  m  is  changed  to  n  before  dem  (33,  4).  In 
early  Latin  eisdem  and  Isdem  occur  for  Idem;  eidem  and  idem  for  idem;  eisdwn 
and  isdem  in  the  Nominative  Plural  for  eidem. 


PHONO  UNS. 


MASC. 


SINGULAR. 
FEM. 


NEUT. 


MASC. 


PLURAL. 
FEM. 


NEUT. 


Norn,  idem  eadem  idem 

Gen.  gjusdem  ejusdem  ejusdem 

Dat.   eldem  eldem  eldem1 

Ace.    eundem  eandem  idem 

All.   eodem  eadem  eodem 


eaedem        eadem 


ieidem 2 
iidem 

eorundem  earundem  eorundem 

j  eisdem  eisdem  eisdem2 

[  ilsdem  iisdem  ilsdem 

eosdem  easdem  eadem 

j  eisdem  eisdem  eisdem8 

( ilsdem  ilsdem  ilsdem 


(  els 
( iis 


1.  Hie  (for  hi-ce)  is  compounded  with  the  demonstrative  particle  ce, 
meaning  here.    The  forms  in  c  have  dropped  e,  while  the  other  forms  have 
dropped  the  particle  entirely.    But  ce  is  often  retained  for  emphasis ;  hice, 
hujusce,  hosce,  horunce  (m  changed  to  n),  horunc  (e  dropped).    Ce,  changed 
to  ci,  is  generally  retained  before  the  interrogative  ne :  hicine,  hoscine. 

2.  ILLIC  AND  IsTic,3  also  compounded  with  the  particle  ce,  are  declined 
alike,  as  follows : 


MASC. 

FEM. 

NEUT. 

Nom.  Ullo 
Gen.  illlusce 

illaec 
illlusce 

iUuc  (illoc) 
illlusce  4 

Dat.   illlc 

illlc 

illlc 

Ace.   illunc 
All.    illoc 

illanc 
iliac 

illuc  (illoc) 
illoc 

MASC. 
illlc 


PLURAL. 
FEM. 

illaec 


NEUT. 
illaec 


illlsce  illlsce  illlsce 
illosce  illasce  illaec 
illlsce  illlsce  illlsce 

3.  SYNCOPATED  FORMS,  compounded  of  ecce  or  en,  '  lo,'  '  see,'  and  some 
cases  of  demonstratives,  especially  the  Accusative  of  ille  and  is,  occur :  eccum 
for  ecce  eum  ;  eccos  for  ecce  eos  ;  ellum  for  en  ilium  ;  ellam  for  en  illam. 

4.  DEMONSTRATIVE  ADJECTIVES  :  tdlis,  e,  such ;  tantus,  a,  urn,  so  great ;  tot, 
BO  many ;  totut,  a,  urn,  so  great.     Tot  is  indeclinable ;  the  rest  regular. 

NOTE.— For  tdlis,  the  Genitive  of  a  demonstrative  with  modi  (Genitive  of  modus, 
measure,  kind)  is  often  used :  hujusmodl,  ejusmodi,  of  this  kind,  such. 

IV.  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

187.  The  Relative  qul,  'who/  so  called  because  it  re- 
lates to  some  noun  or  pronoun,  expressed  or  understood, 
called  its  antecedent,  is  declined  as  follows  : 6 

1  Sometimes  a  dissyllable. 

2  Eldem  and  eisdem  are  the  approved  forms.    Instead  of  ildem  and  ilsdem,  dis- 
syllables In  poetry,  Idem  and  Isdem  are  often  written. 

3  Illlc  and  istlc  are  formed  from  the  stems  of  ille  and  iste  in  the  same  manner  as  hlo 
is  formed  from  its  stem ;  see  page  72,  foot-note  4. 

*  Observe  that  ce  is  retained  in  full  after  «,  but  shortened  to'c  in  all  other  situations. 
5  The  stem  of  qul  is  quo,  qua,  which  becomes  co,  cu  in  cujus  and  cui.    Qul  and 


PRONOUNS.  75 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

MASO.  FEM.  NEUT.  MASC.  FEM.  NEUT. 

jVom.  qui  quae  quod  qui  quae  quae 

Gen.   cujus  cujus  cujus  quorum  quarum  quorum 

Dat.    cui  cui  cui  quibus  quibus  quibus 

Ace.    quern1  quam  quod  quos  quas  quae 

Abl.    quo  qua  quo  quibus  quibus  quibus 

1.  Qui*  =  qud,  qua,  'with  which,*  'wherewith/  is  a  Locative  or  Ablative 
of  the  relative  qui. 

2.  Cum,  when  used  with  the  Ablative  of  the  relative,  is  generally  appended 
to  it :  quibuscum. 

3.  Qulcumque  and  Quisquis,  '  whoever,'  are  called  from  their  signification 
general  relatives*     Qulcumque  (qulcunque)  is  declined  like  qui.     Quisquis  is 
rare  except  in  the  forms,  quisquis,  quidquid  (quicquid),  quoquo. 

NOTE.— -The  parts  of  Qulcumque  are  sometimes  separated  by  one  or  more  words : 
qua  re  cumque. 

4.  EELATIVE  ADJECTIVES  :  qudlis,  e,  such  as ;  quantus,  a,  urn,  so  great ; 
quot,  as  many  as ;  quotus,  a,  um}  of  which  number ;  and  the  double  and 
compound  forms :  qualisqualis,  qucHiscumque,  etc. 

NOTE.— For  Quails  the  Genitive  of  the  relative  with  modi  is  often  used :  cujusmodl, 
of  what  kind,  such  as ;  cujuscumquemodl,  cuicuimodl  (for  cujuxcujusmodl),  of  what- 
ever kind. 

V.  INTEBROGATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

188.  The  Interrogative  Pronouns  quis  and  qui,  with 
their  compounds,4  are  used  in  asking  questions.  They  are 
declined  as  follows : 

quae  are  formed  from  quo  and  qua  like  hi  and  hae  in  hl-c  and  hae-c  from  ho  and  ha;  see 
186, 1.,  foot-note  4.  Ancient  or  rare  forms  are  quei,  quis  (for  qui),  Nom.  Sing. ;  quoius 
(i  =J)'  quoi,  cui  (for  cujus,  as  in  cuimodl  =  cujusmodl),  quoiei,  quoi  (for  cui)',  quis 
(for  qui),  Nom.  Plur. ;  quai  (for  quae),  Fern,  and  Neut.  Plur. ;  queis,  quis  (for  quibua). 

1  An  Accusative  quom,  also  written  quum  and  cum,  formed  directly  from  the  stem 
quo,  became  the  conjunction  quom,  quum,  cum,  *  when,1  lit.  during  which,  i.  e.,  during 
which  time.    Indeed,  several  conjunctions  are  in  their  origin  Accusatives  of  pronouns : 
quam,  'in  what  way,'  'how,'  is  the  Accusative  of  qui ;  quamquam,  'however  much,' 
the  Accusative  of  quis-quis  (187,  8);  turn,  *then,'  and  tarn,  'so,'  Accusatives  of  the 
pronominal  stem  to,  ta,  seen  in  is-tus,  is-te,  is-ta  (186,  II.,  foot-note  8). 

2  This  is  an  element  in  quln  -  qul-ne,  'by  which  not,' '  that  not,'  and  in  qulppe  = 
qul-pe,  'indeed.' 

3  Eelative  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  may  be  made  general  in  signification  by 
taking  cumque,  like  qui-cumque,  or  by  being  doubled  like  quis-quis :  qualis-cumqu^ 
qualis-qualis,  of  whatever  kind ;  ubl-cumque,  ubi-ubl,  wheresoever. 

*  The  relative  qui,  the  interrogatives  quis,  qui,  and  the  indefinites  quis,  qui,  are 
all  formed  from  the  stem  quo,  qua.  The  ancient  and  rare  forms  are  nearly  the  same  in 
all ;  see  page  74,  foot-note  5, 


76  PRONOUNS. 


I 


".  Quis,  who,  which,  what? 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

MASC.  FEM.  NEUT.  MASC.  FEM.  NETTT. 

Norn,  quis  quae  quid  qui  quae  quae 

Gen.   cujus  cujus  cujus  quorum  quarum  quorum 

Dat.    cui  cui  cui  quibus  quibus  quibus 

Ace.    quern  quam  quid  quos  quas  quae 

All.    quo  qua  quo  quibus  quibus  quibus 

II.  Qui,  ichich,  what  ?  is  declined  like  the  relative  qui. 

1.  Quis  is  generally  used  substantively,  and  Qui,  adjectively.    The  forms 
quis  and  quern  are  sometimes  feminine. 

2.  Qui,  how  ?  in  what  way  ?  is  a  Locative  or  Ablative  of  the  interrogative 
quis;  see  187,  1. 

3.  COMPOUNDS  of  quis  and  qui  are  declined  like  the  simple  pronouns :  quis- 
nam,  qulnam,  ecquis,  etc.    But  ecquis  has  sometimes  ecqua  for  ecquae. 

4.  INTERROGATIVE  ADJECTIVES  :   qudlis,  e,  what?  quantus,  a,  urn,  how 
great  ?  quot,  how  many  ?  quotus,  a,  um,  of  what  number  ?  uter,  utra,  utrum, 
which  (of  two)  ?  see  151. 

VI.  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS. 

189.  Indefinite  Pronouns  do  not  refer  to  any  definite 
persons  or  things.     The  most  important  are  quis  and  qui, 
with  their  compounds. 

190.  Quis,   'any  one/  and  qul,   'any  one/  'any/  are 
the  same  in  form  and  declension  as  the  interrogatives  quis 
and  qui.     But — 

1.  After  si,  nisi,  ne,  and  num,  the  Fern.  Sing,  and  Neut.  Plur.  have  quae 
or  qua :  si  quae,  si  qua. 

2.  From  quis  and  qui  are  formed — 

1)  The  Indefinites  : 

aliquis,  aliqua,  aliquid      or  aliquod,1  some,  some  one. 

quispiam,         quaepiam,  quidpiam  or  quodpiam,2  some,  some  one. 

quldam,  quaedam,  quiddam  or  quoddam,3  certain,  certain  one. 

quisquam,        quae  quam,  quicquam  or  quidquam,4  any  one. 

1  Aliquis  is  compounded  of  a/i,  seen  in  ali-us;  quisquam,  of  quis  and  quam  ;  quis- 
que,  of  quis  and  que  (from  quT) ;  qulvis,  of  qui  and  the  verb  vis  (293),  'you  wish' — 
hence  qul-vls,  'any  you  wish1;  qullibet,  of  qui  and  the  impersonal  lioet,  'it  pleases.' 

2  Also  written  quippiam,  quoppiam. 

3  Quldam  changes  m  to  n  before  d :  quendam  for  quemdam. 

4  Quisquam  generally  wants  the  Fern,  and  the  Plur. 


PRONOUNS. 


2)  The  General  Indefinites  : 

quisque,  quaeque,  quidque    or  quodque,1          every,  every  one. 

qulvls,  quaevis,  quidvls     or  quodvls, 

qullibet,  quaelibet,          quidlibet  or  quodlibet,          any  one 

NOTE  1.— These  compounds  are  generally  declined  like  quis  and  qul,  but  they  have 
in  the  Neut.  Sing,  quod  used  adjectively,  and  quid  suostantively. 

NOTE  2.— AUquis  has  aliqua  instead  of  aliquae  in  the  Fern.  Sing,  and  Neut.  Plur. 
Aliqul  for  aliquis  occurs. 

191.  The  correspondence  which  exists  between  Demonstratives,  Rela- 
tives, Interrogatives,  and  Indefinites,  is  seen  in  the  following 

TABLE  OF  CORRELATIVES. 


INTEBROGATIVE. 

INDEFINITE. 

DEMONSTRATIVE. 

RELATIVE. 

quis,  qul, 
who  ?  what  ?  2 

quis,  qul*  any  one, 
any;  aliquis*  some 
one,  some  ;  quldam, 
certain  one,  certain  ; 

Me,  this  one,  this;4 
iste,  that  one,  that; 
ille,  that  one,  that; 
is,  he,  that  ; 

qul,3  who. 

uter,  which 
of  two  I 

uter  or  alteruter,  ei- 
ther of  two  ; 

uterque,  each,  both  ;  5 

qul,  who. 

qudlis,  of 
what  kind? 

qudlislibet*  of  any 
kind; 

tdlis,  such  ; 

qudlis,*  as. 

quantus,  how 
great  ? 

aliquantus,  some- 
what great  ;   quan- 
tusms,   as   great  as 
you  please  ; 

tantus,  so  great  ; 

quantus,*  as, 
as  great. 

.] 

quot,  how 
many? 

aliquot,  some  ; 

tot,  so  many  ; 

quot,  as,   as 
many. 

NOTE.— Nescio  quis, '  I  know  not  who,1  has  become  in  effect  an  indefinite  pronoun 
=  quldam,  'some  one.1  So  also  nescio  qui, ;  I  know  not  which1  or  'what1  =  '  some1; 
nescid  quot  =  aliquot, '  some,1 '  a  certain  number.1 

1  In  unus-qmsque  both  parts  are  regularly  declined. 

2  Observe  that  the  question  quis  or  qul,  who  or  what?  may  be  answered  indefi- 
nitely by  quis,  qul,  aliquis,  etc.,  or  definitely  by  a  demonstrative,  either  alone  or  with 
a  relative,  as  by  Me,  this  one,  or  hie  qul,  this  one  who;  is,  he,  or  is  qul,  he  who,  etc. 

3  In  form  observe  that  the  indefinite  is  either  the  same  as  the  interrogative  or  is  a 
compound  of  it :  quis,  ali-quis,  qul,  qul-dam,  and  that  the  relative  is  usually  the  same 
as  the  interrogative. 

*  On  hie,  iste,  ille,  and  is,  see  45O;  451, 1. 
6  Or  one  of  the  demonstratives,  hie,  iste,  etc. 


78  VERBS. 

CHAPTEK    IV. 
VERBS. 

192.  VERBS  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  express  existence, 
condition,  or  action:  est,  he  is;   dormit,  he  is  sleeping; 
legit,  he  reads. 

193.  Verbs  comprise  two  principal  classes: 

I.  TRAKSITIVE  VERBS  admit  a  direct  object  of  the  action : 
servum  verier  at,  he  beats  the  slave.1 

II.  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  do  not  admit  such  an  object  : 
puer  cur r it,  the  boy  runs.1 

1 94.  Verbs  have  Voice,  Mood,  Tense,  Number,  and  Person. 

I.  VOICES. 

195.  There  are  two  voices: 

I.  The  ACTIVE  VOICE  2  represents  the  subject  as  ACTING 
or  EXISTING  :  pater  f  Ilium  amat,  the  father  loves  his  son ; 
est,  he  is. 

II.  The  PASSIVE  VOICE  represents  the  subject  as  ACTED 
UPON  by  some  other  person  or  thing :  fllius  a  patre  amd- 
tur,  the  son  is  loved  by  his  father. 

1.  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  generally  have  only  the  active  voice,  but  are  some- 
times used  impersonally  in  the  passive ;  see  301, 1. 

2.  DEPONENT  VERBS3  are  Passive  in  form,  but  not  in  sense:  loquor,  to 
speak.    But  see  331. 

II.  MOODS. 

1 96.  There  are  three  moods : 4 

1  Here  servum,  'the  slave,'  is  the  object  of  the  action  :  "beats  ("what?)  the  slave.    The 
object  thus  completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb.    He  beats  is  incomplete  in  sense,  but  the 
boy  runs  is  complete,  and  accordingly  does  not  admit  an  object. 

2  Voice  shows  whether  the  subject  acts  (Active  Voice),  or  is  acted  upon  (Passive 
Voice).    Thus,  with  the  Active  Voice,  *  the  father  loves  his  son?  the  Bubject,father,  is 
the  one  who  performs  the  action,  loves,  while  with  the  Passive  Voice,  '  the  son  is  loved 
by  the  father?  the  subject,  eon,  merely  receives  the  action,  is  acted  upon,  is  loved. 

3  So  caDed  from  depond,  to  lay  aside,  as  they  dispense,  in  general,  with  the  active 
form  and  the  passive  meaning.    For  deponent  verbs  with  the  sense  of  the  Greek  Middle, 
see  465. 

4  Mood,  or  Mode,  means  manner,  and  relates  to  the  manner  in  which  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  is  expressed,  as  will  be  seen  by  observing  the  force  of  the  several  Moods. 


VERBS.  79 

I.  The  INDICATIVE  MOOD  either  asserts  something  as  a 
fact  or  inquires  after  the  fact: 

Legit,  HE  is  READING.  Legitne,  is  HE  READING?  Servius  regnavit,  Ser- 
vim  REIGNED.  Quis  ego  sum,  who  AM  I? 

II.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD  expresses  not  an  actual  fact, 
but  a  possibility  or  conception.    It  is  best  translated J — 

1.  Sometimes  by  the  English  auxiliaries,2  let,  may,  might,  should, 
would : 

Amemus  patriam,  LET  us  LOVE  our  country.  Sint  beat!,  MAY  THEY  BE 
happy.  Quaerat  quispiam,  some  one  MAY  INQUIRE.  Hoc  nemo  dixerit,  no  one 
WOULD  SAY  this.  Ego  censeam,  I  SHOULD  THINK,  or  /  AM  INCLINED  TO  THINK. 
Enltitur  ut  mncat,  he  strives  that  HE  MAY  CONQUER.S  Domum  ub!  habitdret, 
legit,  he  selected  a  house  where  HE  MIGHT  DWELL. 

2.  Sometimes  by  the  English  Indicative,  especially  by  the  Future 
forms  with  shall  and  will  : 

Huic  ceddmus,  SHALL  WE  YIELD  to  this  one?  Quid  diesferat  incertum  est, 
what  a  day  WILL.  BRING  FORTH  is  uncertain.  Dubito  num  debeam,  I  doubt 
whether  I  OUGHT.  Quaeslvit  si  liceret,  he  inquired  whether  IT  WAS  LAWFUL. 

3.  Sometimes  by  the  Imperative,  especially  in  prohibitions : 

Scrlbere  ne  pigrere,  DO  not  NEGLECT  to  write.  Ne  transieris  Iberum,  DO 
not  CROSS  the  Ebro. 

4.  Sometimes  by  the  English  Infinitive :  * 

Contendit  ut  mncat,  he  strives  TO  CONQUER.  5  Mlssl  sunt  qui  consulerent 
Apollinem,  they  were  sent  TO  CONSULT  Apollo. 

III.  The  IMPERATIVE  MOOD  expresses  a  command  or  an 
entreaty : 

Justitiam  cole,  PRACTISE  justice.     Tii  ne  cede  malls,  DO  not  YIELD  to  mis- 


1  The  use  and  proper  translation  of  the  Subjunctive  must  be  learned  from  the  Syn- 
tax.   A  few  illustrations  are  here  given  to  aid  the  learner  in  understanding  the  Para* 
digms  of  the  Verbs;  see  477-530. 

2  This  is  generally  the  proper  translation  in  simple  sentences  and  in  principal  clauses 
(483),  and  sometimes  even  in  subordinate  clauses  (490). 

3  Or,  he  strives  TO  CONQUER  ;  see  4  below,  with  foot-note  4. 

4  The  English  has  a  few  remnants  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood,  which  may  also  be  used 
in  translating  the  Latin  Subjunctive :  Utinam  possem,  would  that  I  WERE  ABLE. 

6  Observe,  however,  that  the  Infinitive  here  is  not  the  translation  of  the  Subjunc- 
tive alone,  but  of  the  Subjunctive  with  its  subject  and  connective :  ut  vincat,  to  Con- 
quer (lit.,  that  he  may  conquer) ;  qui  consulerent,  to  consult  (lit.,  who  should  or  would 
consult). 


80  VERBS. 

III.   TENSES. 

1 97.  There  are  six  tenses : 

I.  THREE  TENSES  FOR  INCOMPLETE  ACTION: 

1.  Present:  amo,  I  love,  I  am  loving.1 

2.  Imperfect :  amabam,  I  was  loving,  I  loved. 

3.  Future :  amabo,  I  shall  love,  I  will  love. 

II.  THREE  TENSES  FOR  COMPLETED  ACTION-. 

1.  Perfect :  amdvi,  I  have  loved,  I  loved. 

2.  Pluperfect :  amdveram,  I  had  loved. 

3.  Future  Perfect :  amdvero,  I  shall  have  loved.2 

NOTE  1. — The  Latin  Perfect  sometimes  corresponds  to  our  Perfect  with 
have  (have  loved),  and  is  called  the  Present  Perfect  or  Perfect  Definite ;  and 
sometimes  to  our  Imperfect  or  Past  (loved),  and  is  called  the  Historical  Per- 
fect or  Perfect  Indefinite* 

NOTE  2. — The  Indicative  Mood  has  all  the  six  tenses ;  the  Subjunctive  has 
the  Present,  Imperfect,  Perfect,  and  Pluperfect ;  the  Imperative,  the  Present 
and  Future  only.4 

198.  PRINCIPAL    AND    HISTORICAL. —  Tenses   are  also   distin- 
guished as — 

I.  PRINCIPAL  or  PRIMARY  TENSES: 

1.  Present:  amo,  I  love. 

2.  Present  Perfect :  amdvl,  I  have  loved.3 

3.  Future :  amdW,  I  shall  love. 

4.  Future  Perfect :  amdverd,  I  shall  have  loved. 
n.  HISTORICAL  or  SECONDARY  TENSES: 

1.  Imperfect:  amabam,  I  was  loving. 

2.  Historical  Perfect :  amdvl,  I  loved.3 

3.  Pluperfect :  amdveram,  I  had  loved. 

1  Or,  7  do  love.    The  English  did  may  also  be  used  in  translating  the  Imperfect  and 
Perfect:  I  did  love. 

2  Or,  Iicill  Tiave  loved. 

3  Thus  the  Latin  Perfect  combines  within  itself  the  force  and  use  of  two  distinct 
tenses— the  Perfect  proper,  seen  in  the  Greek  Perfect,  and  the  Aorist,  seen  in  the  Greek 
Aorist:  amavi  =  7re<J>i'AijKa,  I  Tiave  loved;  amavi  =  e^tArjo-a,  I  loved.    The  Historical 
Perfect  and  the  Imperfect  both  represent  the  action  as  past,  but  the  former  regards 
it  simply  as  a  historical  fact — /  loved ;  while  the  latter  regards  it  as  in  progress — / 
was  loving. 

4  The  nice  distinctions  of  tense  have  been  fully  developed  only  in  the  Indicative.    In 
the  Subjunctive  and  Imperative,  the  time  of  the  action  is  less  prominent  and  is  less  defi- 
nitely marked. 


VERBS.  81 

199.  NUMBEES  AND  PERSONS. — There  are  two  numbers, 
SINGULAR  and  PLURAL/  and  three  persons,  FIRST,  SEC- 
OND, and  THIRD/ 

NOTE. — The  various  verbal  forms  which  have  voice,  mood,  tense,  number, 
and  person,  make  up  the  finite  verb. 

200.  Among  verbal  forms  are  included  the  following 
verbal  nouns  and  adjectives : 

I.  The  INFINITIVE  is  a  verbal  noun.2    It  is  sometimes  best  trans- 
lated by  the  English  Infinitive,  sometimes  by  the  verbal  noun  in  ING, 
and  sometimes  by  the  Indicative : 

Exire  ex  urbe  vol6, 1  wish  TO  GO  out  of  the  city.  Gesti6  sclre  omnia,  /  long 
TO  KNOW  all  tilings.  Haec  sclre  juvat,  TO  KNOW  these  things  affords  pleasure. 
Peccare  licet  nemini,  TO  SIN  is  lawful  for  no  one.  Vincere 3  scls,  you  know 
how  TO  CONQUER,  or  you  understand  CONQUERING. 3  Te  dlcunt  esse*  sapien- 
tem,  they  say  that  you  ARE*  wise.  Sentimus  calere*  ignem,  ive  perceive  that 
fire  is  HOT.-*  See  also  Syntax,  533-539. 

II.  The  GERUND  gives  the  meaning  of  the  verb  in  the  form  of 
a  verbal  noun  of  the  second  declension,  used  only  in  the  genitive, 
dative,  accusative,  and  ablative  singular.     It  corresponds  to  the  Eng- 
lish verbal  noun  in  ING  : 

Amandi,  OF  LOVING.  Amandl  causa,  for  the  sake  OF  LOVING.  Ars  viven- 
di,  the  art  OF  LIVING.  Cupidus  te  audiendl,  desirous  OF  HEARING  you.  Utilis 
Ubendo,  useful  FOR  DRINKING.  Ad  discendum  propensus,  inclined  TO  LEARN,S 
or  TO  LEARNING.  Mens  discendo  alitur,  the  mind  is  nourished  BY  LEARNING. 
See  also  Syntax,  541-544. 

III.  The  SUPINE  gives  the  meaning  of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  a 
verbal  noun  of  the  fourth  declension.     It  has  a  form  in  um  and  a 
form  in  u : 

Amatum,  TO  LOVE,  FOR  LOVING.     Amdtu,  TO  BE  LOVED,  FOR  LOVING,  IN 

1  As  in  Nouns ;  see  44. 

2  The  Infinitive  has  the  characteristics  both  of  verbs  and  of  nouns.   As  a  verb,  it  gov- 
erns oblique  cases  and  takes  adverbial  modifiers ;  as  a  noun,  it  is  itself  governed.    In 
origin  it  is  a  verbal  noun  in  the  Dative  or  Locative.    See  Jolly,  pp.  179-200. 

3  Observe  that  the  infinitive  sincere  may  be  translated  by  the  English  infinitive,  to 
conquer,  or  by  the  verbal  noun,  conquering. 

4  Observe  that  the  infinitives  esse  and  calere  are  translated  by  the  indicative  are  and 
is  (is  hot) ;  and  that  the  Ace.  te,  the  subject  of  esse,  is  translated  by  the  Norn,  you,  the 
subject  of  are;  and  that  the  Ace.  ignem,  the  subject  of  calere,  is  translated  by  the  Norn. 
fire,  the  subject  of  is, 

5  Occasionally  the  Gerund,  especially  with  a  preposition,  may  be  thus  translated  by 
the  English  infinitive. 


82  VERBS. 

LOVING.    Auxilium  postuldtum  venit,  he  came  TO  ASK  aid.    Difficile  dictu  est, 
it  is  difficult  TO  TELL.    See  Syntax,  545-547. 

NOTE.— The  Supine  in  um  is  an  Accusative  in  form,  while  the  Supine  in 
u  may  be  either  a  Dative  or  an  Ablative ;  see  116. 

IV.  The  PARTICIPLE  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  gives  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  an  adjective.1  It  is  sometimes  best 
translated  by  the  English  Participle  or  Infinitive,  and  sometimes 
by  a  Clause : 

Amdns,  LOVING.  Amaturus,  ABOUT  TO  LOVE.  Amdtus^  LOVED.  Aman- 
dus,  DESERVING  TO  BE  LOVED.  Plato  scTibens  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  WHILE 
WRITING,  or  WHILE  HE  WAS  WRITING.  Sol  oriens  diem  conficit,  the  sun  RISING, 
or  WHEN  IT  RISES,2  causes  the  day.  Kediit  belli  casum  tentalurus,  he  returned 
TO  TRY  (lit.,  about  to  try)  the  fortune  of  war.  In  amlcls  eligendis*  in  SELECT- 
ING friends.  See  Syntax,  548-550. 

NOTE. — A  Lathi  verb  may  have  four  participles :  two  in  the  Active,  the 
Present  and  the  Future,  amdns,  amdturus  ;  and  two  in  the  Passive,  the  Per- 
fect and  the  Gerundive,3  amdtus,  amandus. 

CONJUGATION. 

201.  Eegular  verbs  are  inflected,  or  conjugated,  in  four 
different  ways,  and  are  accordingly  divided  into  Four  Con- 
jugations,4 distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  stem  char- 
acteristics or  by  the  endings  of  the  Infinitive,  as  follows : 

CHAEACTERISTICS.         INFINITIVE  ENDINGS. 

COKJ.  I.  5  a-re 

II.  e  e-re 

III.  e  e-re 

IV.  I  i-re 

202.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. — The  Present  Indicative,  Pres- 
ent Infinitive,  Perfect  Indicative,  and  Supine  are  called 
from  their  importance  the  Principal  Parts  of  the  verb. 

1  Participles  are  verbs  in  force,  but  adjectives  in  form  and  inflection.    As  verbs,  they 
govern  oblique  cases ;  as  adjectives,  they  agree  with  nouns. 

2  Or  by  its  rising. 

3  Sometimes  called  th6  Future  Passive  Participle.    In  agreement  with  a  noun,  it 
is  often  best  translated  like  a  gerund  governing  that  noun ;  see  544. 

4  The  Four  Conjugations  are  only  varieties  of  one  general  system  of  inflection,  as  the 
differences  between  them  have  been  produced  in  the  main  by  the  union  of  different  final 
letters  in  the  various  stems  with  one  general  system  of  suffixes ;  see  Comparative  View 
of  Conjugations,  2 1 3-3 1 6. 


83 

NOTE  1.— In  the  inflection  of  verbs  it  is  found  convenient  to  recognize  four 
stems : 

1)  The  Verb-Stem,  which  is  the  basis  of  the  entire  conjugation.    This  is 
often  called  simply  the  Stem. 

2)  Three  Special  Stems,  the  Present  Stem,  the  Perfect  Stem,  and  the  Su- 
pine Stem. 

NOTE  2. — The  Special  Stems  are  formed  from  the  Verb-Stem,  unless  they 
are  identical  with  it.1 

203.  The  ENTIRE  CONJUGATION  of  any  regular  verb 
may  be  readily  formed  from  the  Principal  Parts  by  means 
of  the  proper  endings.2 

1.  SUM,  /  am,  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  passive  voice  of  regular 
verbs.  Accordingly,  its  conjugation,  though  quite  irregular,  must  be  given 
at  the  outset.  The  Principal  Parts  are — 

PRES.  INDIO.  PEES.  INFIN.  PERF.  INDIO. 

sum,  /  am,  esse,  to  be,  f  ui,  /  have  been. 

NOTE  1. — Sum  has  no  Supine. 

NOTE  2. — Two  independent  stems  or  roots 3  are  used  in  the  conjugation  of 
this  verb,  viz. :  (1)  es,  seen  in  s-um  (for  es-um)  and  in  es-se,  and  (2)  fu,  seen 
in  fu-l. 

1  For  the  treatment  of  Stems,  see  249-256.    In  many  verbs  the  stem  is  itself  de- 
rived from  a  more  primitive  form  called  a  Hoot.    For  the  distinction  between  roots  and 
stems,  and  for  the  manner  in  which  the  latter  are  formed  from  the  former,  see  313-318. 

2  In  the  Paradigms  of  regular  verbs,  the  endings  which  distinguish  the  various  forms 
are  separately  indicated,  and  should  be  carefully  noticed.    In  the  parts  derived  from  the 
present  stem  (222, 1.)  each  ending  contains  the  characteristic  vowel. 

3  The  forms  of  irregular  verbs  are  often  derived  from  different  roots.    Thus  in  Eng- 
lish, am,  was,  been ;  go,  went,  gone.    Indeed,  the  identical  roots  used  in  the  conjuga- 
tion of  sum  are  in  constant  use  in  our  ordinary  speech.    The  root  es,  Greek  e?,  originally 
as,  is  seen  in  am  (for  as-mi),  art  (for  as-f),  are  (for  as-e)\  the  root/w,  Greek  <f>v,  origi- 
nally bhu,  is  seen  in  be  (for  bhe\  been.     The  close  relationship  existing  between  the 
Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  is  seen  in  the  following  comparative  forms ;  e<r-<ri  is 
Homeric,  and  e-vri  Doric: 

SANSKRIT.  GREEK.  LATIN.  ENGLISH. 

as-mi  ei-j«  6-um  a-m 

as-i  eo-<rt  es  ar-t 

as-ti  €<r-Tt  ea-t  is 

s-mas  e0"|neV  for  e<r-/x&  s-mnus  ar-e 

s-tha  e<r-Te  es-tis  ar-e 

s-anti  e-i/Tt  for  eo-vri  s-unt  ar-e 

Every  verbal  form  is  thus  made  by  appending  to  the  stem,  or  root,  a  pronominal  ending 

meaning  I,  thou,  he,  etc.    Thus  mi,  seen  in  the  English  me,  means  /.    It  is  retained  in 

as-mi  and  et-fu,  but  shortened  to  m  in  s-u-m  and  a-m.    Ti,  meaning  he,  is  preserved 

in  as-ti  and  eo-rt,  but  shortened  to  t  in  es-t  and  lost  in  is.    The  stem  also  undergoes 

various  changes:  in  Sanskrit  it  is  as,  sometimes  shortened  to  s;  in  Greek  e?,  sometimei 

shortened  to  e;  in  Latin  es,  sometimes  shortened  to  s,  as  in  Sanskrit;  in  English  cr,  ar, 

or  is. 


VERBS. 


204.  Sum,  I  am. — STEMS,  es,  fu. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PEES.  IND.  PBES.  INF.  PEBP.  IND. 

sum,  esse,  ful, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


SINGULAR.                                                                   PLURAL. 

sum,2 

es, 
est, 

lam, 
thou  art? 
heis  ; 

sumus, 

estis, 
snnt, 

we  are, 
you  are, 
they  are. 

IMPERFECT. 

cram, 
eras, 
erat, 

I  was, 
thou  wast,3 
he  was  ; 

eranius, 
eratis, 
erant, 

we  were, 
you  were, 
they  were. 

FUTURE. 

erO,4 
eris, 
erat, 

I  shall  be,5 
thou  wilt  be, 
he  will  be  ; 

erimus, 
eritis, 
erunt, 

we  shall  be, 
you  will  be, 
they  will  be. 

PERFECT. 

ful, 
fulstl, 

fuit, 

I  have  been,5 
thou  hast  been, 

he  has  been  ; 

fuimns, 

fulstis, 
fuerunt,  \ 
fu€re,        [ 

we  have  been, 
you  have  been, 

they  have  been. 

PLUPERFECT. 

fueram, 

fueras, 
fuerat, 

/  had  been, 
thou  hadst  been, 
he  had  been  ; 

fueramus 
fueratis, 
fuerant, 

,  we  had  been, 
you  had  been, 
they  had  been. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 

fuerd, 

fueris, 
fuerit, 

I  shall  have  been, 
thou  wilt  have  been, 
he  will  have  been  ; 

fuerfmus, 
fueritis, 
fuerint, 

we  shall  have  been, 
you  will  have  been, 
they  will  have  been. 

1  The  Supine  is  wanting. 

2  Sum  is  for  esum,  eram  for  esam.    Whenever  s  of  the  stem  es  comes  between  two 
Towels,  e  is  dropped,  as  in  sum,  sunt,  or  s  is  changed  to  r,  as  in  eram,  erd;  see  31, 1. 
The  pupil  will  observe  that  the  endings  which  are  added  to  the  roots  es  and  fu  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  type. 

3  Or  you  arc,  and  in  the  Imperfect,  you  were ;  thou  is  confined  mostly  to  solemn 
discourse. 

4  In  verbs,  final  0,  marked  6,  is  generally  long. 

s  Or,  Future,  I  will  be;  Perfect,  I  was;  see  197,  note  1. 


VERBS. 


85 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SINGULAR.                PRESENT.                 PLURAL. 

sim, 

sis, 

sit, 

may  I  be,1 
mayst  thou  be* 
let  him  be,  may  lie  be  ; 

slums, 
sltis, 
sint, 

let  us  be, 
be  ye,  may  you  be, 
let  them  be. 

IMPERFECT. 

essem, 
esses, 
esset, 

I  should  be,1 
thou  wouldst  be, 
he  would  be; 

esse'mus, 

ess^tis, 

essent, 

we  should  be, 
you  would  be, 
they  would  be. 

PERFECT. 

fuerim, 

fuerfs, 
fuerit, 

/  may  have  been,1 
thou  mayst  have  been, 
he  may  have  been  ; 

fuerimus. 

fucrltis, 
fuerint, 

we  may  have  been, 
you  may  have  been, 
they  may  have  been. 

PLUPERFECT. 

fuissem, 
fuisses, 
fuisset, 

/  should  have  been, 
thou  wouldst  have  been, 
he  would  have  been  ; 

fuissemns, 
fuissetis, 
fuissent, 

we  should  have  been, 
you  would  have  been, 
they  would  have  been. 

IMPERATIVE.      m 

Pres.    es, 

be  thou, 

este, 

be  ye. 

Fut.     estd, 
estd, 

thou  shalt  be,3 
he  shall  be  ;  3 

cstOte, 
suntd, 

ye  shall  be, 
they  shall  be. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

esse,  to  be. 
Perf.   fuisse,  to  have  been. 
Fut.     futurus  esse,4  to  be  about 
to  be. 


Fut.  futftrns,4  about  to  be. 


1.  In  the  Paradigm  all  the  forms  beginning  with  e  or  s  are  from  the  stem 
es  ;  all  others  from  the  stem  fu.5 

2.  RARE  FORMS  :—forem,  fores,  foret,  forent,  fore,  for  essem,  esses,  esset, 
essent,  futurus  esse  ;  siem,  sies,  siet,  sient,  or f warn,  fuds,  fuat,  ftiant,  for  sim, 
.;is,  sit,  sint. 

1  On  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II.,  and  remember  that  it  is  often 
best  rendered  by  the  Indicative.  Thus,  sim  may  often  be  rendered  lam,  and  fuerim,  1 
have  been. 

a  Or  be  thou,  or  may  you  be. 

3  The  Fut.  may  also  be  rendered  like  the  Pres.,  or  with  let :  be  thou  ;  let  Mm  be. 

4  Futurus  is  declined  like  bonus.    So  in  the  Infinitive  :  futurus,  a,  um  esse. 

6  Es  and/w  are  roots  as  well  as  stems.  As  the  basis  of  this  paradigm  they  are  prop- 
erly stems,  but  as  they  are  not  derived  from  more  primitive  forms,  they  are  in  them- 
selves roots. 


86 


FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


FIRST  CONJUGATION  :  A  VERBS. 
205.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— 


VERB  STEM  AND  PRESENT  STEM,  ama.1 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


PEES.  IND. 
amd, 

PBES.  INF.                    PEEP.  IND. 
amare,  .                 amavl, 

SUPINE. 
amatiim. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

SINGULAR.              PRESENT 

amd,1               Hove* 
amas,             you  love* 
amat,             he  loves  ; 

TENSE-                  PLURAL. 

amanms,          we  love, 
amatis,              you  love, 
amant,               tJiey  love. 

IMPERFECT. 

amabam, 

amabas, 
amabat, 

/  loos  loving, 
you  were  loving, 
he  was  loving  ; 

amabamus, 

amabatis, 
amabant, 

we  were  loving, 
you  were  loving, 
they  were  loving. 

FUTURE. 

amabd, 

amabls, 
amabit, 

Ishalllme* 
you  will  love, 
he  mil  love; 

amabimus, 

amabitis, 
amabunt, 

we  shall  love, 
you  will  love, 
they.  will  love. 

PERFECT. 

amavl, 
amavlstl, 
amavlt, 

I  have  loved* 
you  have  loved, 
he  has  loved  ; 

amavimus,       we  have  loved, 
amavlstis,         you  have  loved, 
amav^runt,  ere,  they  have  loved. 

PLUPERFECT. 

am  aver  am, 
amaveras, 
amaverat, 

/  liad  loved, 
you  had  loved, 
he  had  loved; 

amaveramus, 
amaveratis, 
amaverant, 

we  had  loved, 
you  had  loved, 
they  had  loved. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 

amSverd, 
amaveris, 
amaverit, 

/  shall  have  loved,4 
you  will  have  loved, 
he  will  have  loved  ; 

amaverlmtis, 
amaveritis, 
amaverint, 

we  shall  have  loved, 
you  will  have  loved, 
they  will  have  loved. 

1  The  final  a  of  the  stem  disappears  in  amd  for  ama-0,  amem,  ames,  etc.,  for  ama- 
im,  ama-l8,  etc.    Also  in  the  Pass,  in  amor  for  ama-or,  amer,  etc.,  for  ama-ir,  etc. ; 
see  23 ;  27.    Final  o,  marked  6,  is  generally  long. 

2  Or  lam  loving,  I  do  love.    So  in  the  Imperfect,  I  loved,  I  was  loving,  I  did  love. 

3  Or  thou  lovest.    So  in  the  other  tenses,  thou  wast  loving,  thou  itilt  love,  etc. 

*  Or  Iicill  love.    So  in  the  Future  Perfect,  I  shall  have  loved  or  I  will  have  loved. 
^  Or  I  loved;  see  197,  note  1. 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 


87 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SINGULAR.                      PRESE11T- 

PLURAL. 

amem, 
ames, 
amet, 

may  Hove,1 
may  you  love, 
let  him  love  ; 

amemus, 
amfjtis, 

ameiit, 

let  us  love, 
may  you  love, 
let  them  love. 

IMPERFECT. 

amarem,        I  should  love,  amaremus,  we  should  love, 

amares,          you  would  love,  amaretis,  you  would  love, 

amaret,  he  would  love ;  amar ent,  they  would  love. 


PERFECT. 

amaverim,      I  may  have  loved* 
amaverls,       you  may  have  loved, 
amaverit,        he  may  have  loved; 


amaverimus,  we  may  have  loved, 
amaveritis,     you  may  have  loved, 
amaverint,      they  may  have  loved. 


PLUPERFECT. 


amavissem,    I  should  have  loved, 


amavisses, 
amavisset, 


you  would  have  loved, 
he  ioould-have  loved; 


amavissemus,  we  should  have  loved, 
amaviss€tis,  you  would  have  loved, 
amavissent,  they  would  have  loved. 


Pres.  am  a,        love  thou  ; 
Fut.    amato,  thou  sJialt  love, 
amatd,  he  shall  love  ; 


INFINITIVE. 
Pres.  amare,        to  love. 
Per/,  amavisse,   to  have  loved. 
Fut.    amatikrus 3  esse,  to  be  about 
to  love.      4» 

r   ' 

GERUND. 

Gen.  amandl,        of  loving, 

Dat.  amando,       for  loving, 

Ace.  amantliiisi,  loving, 

Abl.  amanclo,        by  loving. 


IMPER 

', 

A.TIVE. 

amate, 

amatote, 
amaiitO, 

love  ye. 
ye  shall  love, 
they  shall  love. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  amans,4         loving. 
Fut.    amat-ULrus,3  about  to  love. 

SUPINE. 


Ace.    amattim, 
Abl.   amatft, 


to  love, 

to  love,  be  loved* 


1  On  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 

2  Often  best  rendered  I  have  loved.    So  in  the  Pluperfect,  I  had  loved;  see  196,  II. 
8  Decline  like  bonus,  148. 

*  For  declension,  see  15  7* 
' 


88 


FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


FIRST  CONJUGATION:   A  VERBS. 
206.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Amor,  I  am  loved. 

VERB  STEM  AND  PRESENT  STEM,  ama. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
PEES.  IM>.  PEES.  INT. 

amor,  amarl, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
lam  loved. 


PEEF.  IND. 
amatus  sum 


SINGULAR.                                                                 PLURAL. 

amor 

amamur 

amaris,  or  re 

amaminl 

amatnr 

amantur 

IMPERFECT. 

I  was  loved. 

amabar 

amabamur 

amabaris,  or  re 

arnabaminl 

amabatur 

amabaiitur 

FUTURE. 
I  shall  or  mil  be  loved 


amabor 

ama~beris,  or  re 
amai>itur 


amabinmr 
amablmiiil 
ama*biintur 


PERFECT. 
/  Jiave  been  loved  or  /  ivas  loved. 


amatus  stun1 
amatus  es 
amatus  est 


amatus  cram1 
amatus  eras 
amatus  erat 


PLUPERFECT. 
I  had  been  loved. 


amfttl  sumus 
amatl  estis 
amati  sunt 


amatl  eramus 
amatl  eratis 
amatl  erant 


FUTURE  PERFECT. 
/  shall  or  will  have  been  loved. 


amatus  ero* 
amatus  eris 
amatus  erit 


amati  erimus 
amatl  eritis 
amatl  erunt 


1  jFwz,  fuisti,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  swm,  es,  etc. :  amatus  ful  for  amdtue 
turn.    So  fueram,  fuerds,  etc.,  for  era/n,  etc. :  also  fuero,  etc.,  for  erfy  etc. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 


89 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  be  loved,  let  him  be  loved.1 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

amer  amemiir 

ameris,  or  re  amemiiii 

ametur  amentitr 

IMPERFECT. 
I  should  be  loved,  he  would  be  loved.1 


amarer 
amare'ris,  or  re 


amatiis 
amatiis  Sis 
amatus  sit 


amaremur 
amareminl 
amarentur 

PERFECT. 
I  may  have  been  loved,  or  I  have  been  loved.1 

amati  slmus 
amati  sltis 
amati  sisit 


PLUPERFECT. 
I  should  have  been  loved,  he  would  have  been  loved.1 


amiitus  essem2 

amatiis  ess^s 
amatiis  esset 


amati  es seisms 
amati  ess^tis 
amati  essent 


IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  amare,    be  thou  loved;  \     amaminl,  be  ye  loved. 

Fut.    amator,  thou  shalt  be  loved, 
amator,  he  shall  be  loved  ; 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  amarl,  to  be  loved. 

Perf.  amattis  esse,2  to  have  been 

loved. 
Fut.    amatum  Irl,  to  be  about  to 

be  loved. 


amaiitor,  they  shall  be  loved. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Perf.  amatws,  having  been  loved. 

Ger*  amandus,  to  be  loved,  de- 
serving to  be  loved. 


1  But  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 

2  Fuerim^fueris,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sim, ««?,  etc.— So 
etc.,  for  essem,  esses,  etc. :  rarely  fuisse  for  esse. 

8  Oer.  =  Gerundive;  see  800,  IV.,  note. 


90 


SECOND   CONJUGATION. 


SECOND  CONJUGATION:  E  VERBS. 
207.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Moneo,  I  advise. 

VERB  STEM,  won,  moni ;  PRESENT  STEM,  mone. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PEES.  IND.  PEES.  INF.  PEEP.  IND. 

moned,  monfcre,  monul, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
/  advise. 


SUPINE. 

roonitiim. 


SINGULAR. 

moneO 

mones 
morifet 


rnone1>am 

mon€l>as 

mone"bat 

mon^bo 
mon^Ms 
mon^bit 


monul 

monulstl 
monuit 


PLURAL. 

monljmus 


monent 
IMPERFECT. 
I  was  advising,  or  I  advised. 

monebamus 
monebatis 
monebant 
FUTURE. 
I  shall  or  will  advise. 

monebimus 
monebitis 
mon^bunt 
PERFECT. 
I  have  advised,  or  I  advised. 

monuimus 
monulstis 
monuCmnt,  or  €re 


monucraiii 
monueras 
monuerat 

PLUPERFECT. 
7  had  advised. 

monueramus 
monueratis 

momierant 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
I  shall  or  will  have  advised. 

monuerO  monuerimus 

monueris  monuerltis 

monuerit  monuerint 


ACTIVE   VOICE. 


91 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  advise,  let  him  advise.1 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

moneam  monea-mus 

moneas  moneatis 

moneat  moneant 

IMPERFECT. 
/  should  advise,  he  would  advise.  ^^ 


moneret 


monSrent 


PERFECT. 
I  may  have  advised,  or  I  have  advised.1 


monuerim 

monueris 

monucrit 


monuerfmus 

monueritis 

monuerint 


PLUPERFECT. 
/  should  have  advised,  he  would  have  advised? 


monuissem 

monuissfcs 

monuisset 


monulssenms 
monuis  sells 
monuissent 


IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  monS,         advise  tliou ;  \  mon€te,        advise  ye. 

Fut.    mon£t6,   thou  shalt  advise,       I  mon€tote,  ye  shall  advise, 
mon^to,   he  shall  advise ;        \  monento,    they  shall  advise. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  mon<Bre,      to  advise. 
Perf.  monuisse,    to  have  advised. 
Fut.    monitii.rju.s  esse,  to  be  about 
to  advise. 

GERUND. 

Gen.  monendl,        of  advising, 
Dot.  monendlo,       for  advising, 
Ace.  monettdion,  advising, 
Abl.   monenclo,       by  advising. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  monens,       advising. 
Fut.    monitu.rns,  about  to  advise. 


SUPINE. 


Acc.  monition,  to  advise, 

Abl.  monitii,  to  advise,  be  advised. 


1  BU*  Qn  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 

2  The  Pluperfect,  like  the  Perfect,  is  often  rendered  by  the  Indicative  :  7  had  ad* 
vised,  you  had  advised,  etc. 


92 


SECOND   CONJUGATION. 


SECOND  CONJUGATION:  E  VERBS. 
208.  PASSIVE  VOICE.—  Moneor,  lam  advised. 

VERB  STEM,  mon,  moni  ;  PRESENT  STEM,  movie. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
PBES.  IKD.  PEES.  INF. 

moneor,  monerl, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
I  am  ( 


,  IND. 
monitus  sum 


SINGULAR. 

moneor 
mone'ris,  or  re 

mone'tur 


mone"bar 
mone"ba-rls,  or  re 


PLCKAL. 

monemur 

mone'minl 
monentur 
IMPERFECT. 
I  was  advised. 

monel>ainiir 
monebamiiil 
monel>aiitur 
FUTURE. 
I  shall  or  will  be  advised. 

monebimnr 
moneblniinl 


mone"bor 
mon€beris,  or  re 
monel>itwr 

PERFECT. 

I  have  been  advised,  Twos  advised. 
monitus  sum1  moniti  sumus 

monitus  es  moniti  estis 

monitus  est  moniti  simt 

PLUPERFECT. 
7  had  been  advised. 

moniti  erfuniis 
moniti  eratis 
moniti  eraiit 
FUTURE  PERFECT. 
/  shall  or  will  have  been  advised. 


monitus  eram1 
monitus  eras 
monitus  erat 


monitus  ero  l 
monitus  eris 
monitus  erit 


moniti  erimus 
moniti  eritis 
moniti  ernnt 


1  See  806,  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE   VOICE. 


93 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  lie  advised,  let  Mm  be  advised. 


SINGULAR. 
monear 
monearis,  or  re 

moneatnr 


PLURAL. 

moneamur 
moneaminl 

moneaiitur 


IMPERFECT. 
/  sJiould  be  advised,  he  would  be  advised. 


monerer 
mon<5r€ris,  or  re 


I  may  have 
monitus  sim1 
monitus  sis 
monitus  sit 


moneremur 

monereminl 
monereutur 

PERFECT. 

or  /  have  been  advised. 

monitl  simiis 
monitl  sltis 
monitl  sint 


PLUPERFECT. 
I  should  have  been  advised,  he  would  have  been  advised.2 


monitns  essem 3 
monitus  esses 
monitus  esset 


monitl  ess  emus 

monitl  essetis 
monitl  essent. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  mone're,    be  thou  advised ;      \  mone'mini,  be  ye  advised. 
Fut.    monitor,  thou  shalt  be  ad- 


monitor,  he  shall  be  advised;     monentor,  they  shall  be  advised. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  monSrl,  to  be  advised. 

Perf.  monitus  esse,1  to  have  been 

advised. 
Fut.    monitum  Irl,  to  be  about  to 


PARTICIPLE. 


Perf.  monitus,  advised. 

Ger.   moneud.us,  to  be  advised,  de- 
serving to  be  advised. 


1  See  806,  foot-notes. 

3  Or  I  had  been  advised,  you  had  oeen  advised,  etc, 


94 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION:    CONSONANT  VERBS. 
209.  ACTIVE  VOICE.—  Rego,  I  rule. 

VERB  STEM,  reg  ;  PRESENT  STEM,  rege.1 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PBEB.  IND.  PEES.  INF.  PERF.  IND.  SUPINE. 

regO,  regere,  rexl,2  rectum.9 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
I  rule. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

regimus 

regitis 
regimt 
IMPERFECT. 
I  was  ruling  ,  or  I  ruled. 

regebamiis 
regebatis 


reg6 
regis 

regit 


regebam 

regebas 
regSbat 


regain 

regCs 
reget 


rexl 

rexlstl 

rexit 


rexerain 

rexoras 
rexerat 


rexerd 

rexerls 

rexerit 


reg^bant 

FUTURE. 
/  shall  or  will  rule. 

regemus 
reg€tis 
regent 
PERFECT. 
I  have  ruled,  or  I  ruled. 

reximus 
rexlstis 

rex^runt,  or  4Bre 
PLUPERFECT. 
/  had  ruled. 

rexeramus 
rexeratis 
rexerant 
FUTURE  PERFECT. 
I  shall  or  will  have  ruled. 

rexerlmus 

rexerltis 

rexeirint 


1  The  characteristic  is  a  variable  vowel—  5,  u,  e,  i  :  regd,  regwnt,  regere,  regis  ;  Cur* 
tins  calls  it  the  thematic  vowel;  see  Curtius,  I.,  p.  199,  but  on  e>,  see  also  Meyer,  441. 
8  SeeS  54;  30;  33,  1. 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 


95 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  rule,  let  him  rule.1 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

regain  regamns 

regas  regatis 

regat  regant 

IMPERFECT. 

I  should  rule,  he  would  rule. 

regerem  regeremus 

reger€s  regeretis 

regeret  regerent 

PERFECT. 
I  may  have  ruled,  or  I  have  ruled. 


rexcrim 

rexerfs 
rexerit 


rexerfmus 

rexeritls 
rexerint 


PLUPERFECT. 
I  should  have  ruled,  lie  would  have  ruled. 


rexissem 

rexisses 

rGxisset 


rege,      rule  thou  ; 

Fut.   regitO,  thou  shall  rule, 
regitd,  he  shall  rule  ; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  regere,    to  rule. 
Perf.  rexisse,  to  have  ruled. 
Fut.  rectftrus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  rule. 

GERUND. 

Gen.  regendl,        of  ruling. 
Dot.   regendo,       for  ruling, 
Ace.    regeiid.mil,  ruling, 
Abl.   regendo,       by  ruling. 


IMPERATIVE. 

I  regite, 


rexissemus 

rexissetls 
rexissent 


rule  ye. 


regitote,  ye  shall  rule, 
regnntO,  they  shall  rule. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  regSns,      ruling. 
Fut.   rectftrus,  about  to  rule. 

SUPINE. 


Ace.   rectum,  to  rule, 

Abl.    rectti,      to  rule,  be  ruled. 


But  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 


96 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION:    CONSONANT  VERBS. 
210.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Regor,  /  qm  ruled. 

VERB  STEM,  reg ;  PRESENT  STEM,  rege.1 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
PEES.  INF. 

regl, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

/  am  ruled. 


PBEB.  IND. 
regor, 


PEEF.  IND. 
rectus1  sum. 


SINGULAR. 

regor 

regeris,  or  re 
regitur 


regSbar 


IMPERFECT. 
/  was  ruled. 


regebatwr 


PLURAL. 

regimur 
rcgimiu! 
rcguntur 


rcgebamur 
regebamini 
reg&bantur 


FUTURE. 
I  shall  or  will  be  ruled. 


regar 

reg^ris,  or  re 
reg€tur 


regemur 
reg€minl 
regentur 


PERFECT. 
I  have  been  ruled,  or  I  was  ruled. 


rgctus  sum* 

rectus  es 
rectus  est 


rectus  eraiu3 
rectus  eras 
rectus  erat 


PLUPERFECT. 
I  had  been  ruled. 


rectl  snmus 
rectl  estis 
rectl  snnt 


rectl  ersimus 
rectl  eratis 
rectl  erant 


FUTURE  PERFECT. 
I  shall  or  will  have  been  ruled. 


rectus  erd9 
rectus  eris 
rectus  erit 


rectl  erimns 
rectl  eritis 
rectl  eruiit 


Bee  309,  foot-notes. 


a  See  806,  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 


97 


May  I  be  ruled,  let  him  be  ruled. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

regar  regamur 

regftris,  or  re  regaminl 

regatur  regantur 

IMPERFECT. 
I  should  be  ruled,  lie  would  be  ruled. 


regerer 

regere"ris,  or  re 
regerfctur 


reger^mur 
regeremiiil 
regerentur 


PERFECT. 
I  may  have  been  ruled,  or  I  have  been  ruled. 


rectus  sim1 
rectus  Sis 
rectus  sit 


rectl  si  nuts 
rectl  sltis 
rectl  sint 


PLUPERFECT. 

I  should  Jiave  been  ruled,  he  would  have  been  ruled. 
rectus  essem1  rectl  essSmus 

rectus  esses  rectl  essetis 

rectus  esset  rectl  essent 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  regere,    be  tJwi  ruled;  \  regimini,  be  ye  ruled. 

Fut.    regitor,  thou  shalt  be  ruled, 
regitor,  he  shall  be  ruled ; 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  regi,  to  be  ruled. 

Perf.  rectus   esse,1  to  have  been 

ruled. 
Fut.    rectum  Sri,  to  be  about  to  be 

ruled. 


rcguntor,  they  shall  be  ruled. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Perf.  rectus,  ruled. 

Oer.    regendus,  to  be  ruled,  de- 
serving to  be  ruled. 


1  See  306,  foot-notes. 


98 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION  :  I  VERBS. 
211.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Audio1,  I  hear. 

VERB  STEM  AND  PRESENT  STEM,  audi. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PEES.  IND.  PEES.  INF.  PEBF.  IND.  SUPINE. 

audio,  audire,  audlvl,  audltum. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
I  hear 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

audio  audlmus 

audis  audltis 

audit  audinnt 

IMPERFECT. 

I  was  hearing,  or  I  heard. 

audielmm  audiebamns 

audiebas  audiebatis 

audiebat  audiebant 

FUTURE. 

I  shall  or  will  hear. 

audiani  audiemus 

audits  audietis 

audiet  audient 

PERFECT. 
I  have  heard,  or  I  heard. 

audiviiiius 


audlvl 

audivlstl 

audlvit 


audlvlstis 
audlverunt,  or  ere 

PLUPERFECT. 

/  had  heard. 

audiveram  audlvtraiiius 

audiveras  audiveratis 

audiverat  audlverant 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
/  shall  or  will  have  heard. 

audiverO  audlverimus 

audlveris  audiverftis 

audlverit  audiverint 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 


99 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  hear,  let  him  hear.1 


SINGULAR. 

audiaaai 

audias 

audiat 


PLURAL. 

audiamus 
audiatis 

audiant 


audlrem 

audlres 
audlret 


IMPERFECT. 
/  should  hear,  lie  would  hear. 


audireiiiiis 

audiretis 

audlrent 


PERFECT. 


audiverim 

audiveris 

audiverit 


I  may  have  heard,  or  Iliave  heard. 


audlverfmus 

audiverftis 
audlverint 


PLUPERFECT. 
/  slwuld  have  heard,  he  would  have  heard. 


audivissem 

audivissemiis 

audlvisses 

audivissetis 

audlvisset 

audlvissicnt 

IMPERATIVE. 

hear  thou; 

audlte, 

hear  ye. 

Pres.  audl, 
Fut.   audltO,  thou  shall  hear, 
audltO,  he  sJiall  hear  ; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  audlre,         to  Jiear. 
Perf.  audivisse,    to  have  heard. 
Fut.   auditftrus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  hear. 

GERUND. 

Gen.  audiendl,        of  hearing, 
Dat.   audiendo,        for  hearing, 
Ace.   audiendum,  hearing, 
Abl    audiendo,       by  hearing. 


audltote,   ye  shall  hear, 
audiunto,  they  shall  hear. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  audi€ns,      hearing. 
Fut.    audit-arils,  about  to  hear. 

SUPINE. 


Ace.   auditum,  to  hear, 

Abl.   audittt,       to  hear,  be  heard. 


But  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 


100 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION:   I  VERBS. 
212.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Audior,  /  am  heard. 

VERB  STEM  AND  PRESENT  STEM,  audi. 


PBES.  IND. 
audiop, 


SINGULAR. 

audior 
audiris,  or  re 

audltur 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PEES.  INF.  PEBF.  IND. 

audn-j,  auditus  sum. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
I  am  heard. 


PLURAL. 
audimur 
audlminl 

audiuiatui* 


IMPERFECT. 
I  was  heard. 

audielmr  audiebainur 

audicbaris,  or  re  audiebaminl 

audieliatur  audi€l»aiitur 

FUTURE. 

I  shall  or  will  be  heard. 

audiar  audiemur 

audi^ris,  or  re  audieiiiini 

audietur  audientur 

PERFECT. 
I  have  been  heard,  or  I  was  heard. 


audltus  sum1 

auditl  sumus 

audltws  es 

audit!  estis 

audltus  est 

auditl  snnt 

PLUPERFECT. 

/  had  been  heard. 

auditus  cram1 

auditl  eramus 

auditus  eras 

auditl  eratis 

audltus  erat 

audit!  erant 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
I  shall  or  will  have  been  heard. 


audltus  erO1 
audltus  eris 
audltus  erit 


auditl  erimns 
audit!  erifis 
auditl  erui&t 


See  206,  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 


101 


SUBJUNCTIVE.    :~. 

PRESENT. 
May  I  be  heard,  lei  him  be  heard. 

SINGULAR. 

audiar 

audifiris,  or  re 
audiatur 


PLURAL. 

audiamur 
audiamin! 
audiantur 


IMPERFECT. 
I  should  be  heard,  he  would  be  heard. 


audlrer 

audlreris,  or  re 
audlretur 


I  may  have 
auditus  sim1 
auditus  sis 
auditus  sit 


audlre'mur 
audlremlnl 
audlrcntur 


PERFECT. 

or  I  have  been  heard. 

audit!  slmus 
audit!  sltis 
audit!  sint 


PLUPERFECT. 

I  should  have  been  heard,  he  would  have  been  heard. 
auditus  essem1  audit!  essemus 

auditus  esses  audit!  csseiis 

auditus  esset  audit!  essent 


IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  audlre,    be  thou  heard;          \   audlmiiil,     be  ye  heard. 
Fut.    auditor,  thou  shalt  be  heard, 


auditor,  he  shall  be  heard; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  audlrl,  to  be  heard. 

Perf.  auditus  esse,1  to  have  been 

heard. 
Fut.    audltum  Irl,  to  be  about  to 

be  heard. 


audiuntor,  they  shall  be  heard. 
PARTICIPLE. 

Perf.  auditus,  heard. 

Ger.   audieudus,  to  be  heard,  de- 
serving to  be  heard. 


1  See  206,  foot-notes. 


102 


VERBS. 

OF  CONJUGATIONS. 


«  **** 

ESE'NT     SYSTEM.  i 

•  '       ••  P  R 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

am 

* 

-as, 

-at  ;                  -amus, 

-atis, 

-ant. 

mon 

-eo, 

-es, 

-et  ;                  -emus, 

-etis, 

-ent. 

reg 

-6 

-is, 

-it  ;                   -imus, 

-itis, 

-unt. 

aud 

-io, 

-is, 

-it  ;                    -Imus, 

-Itis, 

-iunt. 

IMPERFECT. 

am 

-abam, 

-abas, 

-abat  ;              -abamus, 

-abatis, 

-abant. 

mon 

-ebam, 

-ebas, 

-ebat  ;               -ebamus, 

-ebatis, 

-ebant. 

reg 

-ebam, 

-ebas, 

-ebat  ;               -ebamus, 

-ebatis, 

-ebant. 

aud 

-iebam, 

-iebas, 

-iebat  ;             -iebamus, 

-iebatis, 

-iebant. 

FUTURE. 

am 

-abo, 

-abis, 

-abit  ;               -abimus, 

-abitis, 

-abunt. 

mon 

-ebo, 

-ebis, 

-ebit;               -ebimus, 

-ebitis, 

-ebunt. 

reg 

-am, 

-es, 

-et;                  -emus, 

-etis, 

-ent. 

aud 

-iam, 

-ies, 

-iet  ;                 -iemus, 

-ietis, 

-ient. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

am 

-em, 

-es, 

-et  ;                   -emus, 

-etis, 

-ent. 

mon 

-earn, 

-eas, 

-eat  ;                 -eamus, 

-eatis, 

-eant. 

reg 

-am, 

-as, 

-at  ;                  -amus, 

-atis, 

-ant. 

aud 

-iam, 

-ias, 

-iat  ;                  -iamus, 

-iatis, 

-iant. 

IMPERFECT. 

am 

-arem, 

-ares, 

-aret  ;               -aremus, 

-aretis, 

-arent. 

mon 

-erem, 

-eres, 

-eret  ;               -eremus, 

-eretis, 

-erent. 

reg 

-erem, 

-eres, 

-eret  ;               -eremus, 

-eretis, 

-erent. 

aud 

-Irem, 

-Ires, 

-Iret  ;                -Iremus, 

-Iretis, 

-Irent. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERATIVE.           FnTnRE 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

am 

-a, 

-ate; 

-ato,          -ato  ; 

-atote, 

-anto. 

mon 

-e, 

-ete; 

-eto,          -eto  ; 

-etote, 

-ento. 

reg 

-ite; 

-ito,            -ito  ; 

-itote, 

-unto. 

aud 

-I,' 

-Ite; 

-Ito,           -Ito  ; 

-Itote, 

-iunto. 

PRES.  INFINITIVE. 

PRES.  PARTICIPLE 

GERUND. 

am 

-are; 

-ans; 

-andi. 

mon 

-ere; 

-ens; 

-endi. 

reg 

-ere; 

-ens; 

-endi. 

aud 

-Ire; 

-iens  ; 

-iendl. 

NOTE.—  Verbs  in  id  of  Oonj 

.  III.  have  certain  endings  of  Conj.  IV.  ;  see  217. 

*  For  the  Present  System,  see  322,  1. 

VERBS. 


103 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS. 
314.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

PRESENT     SYSTEM. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT. 


am 

-or, 

-aris 

or  are,1 

-atur  ; 

-amur, 

-amini, 

-antur. 

mon 

-eor, 

-eris 

or  ere, 

-etur  ; 

-emur, 

-emini, 

-entur. 

reg 

-or, 

-eris 

or  ere, 

-itur  ; 

-imur, 

-imim, 

-untur. 

aud 

-ior, 

-Iris 

or  ire, 

-itur  ; 

-Imur, 

-Imini, 

-iuntur. 

IMPERFECT. 

am 

-abar, 

-abaris 

or  abare, 

-abatur  ; 

-abamur, 

-abamini, 

-abantur. 

mon 

-ebar, 

-ebaris 

or  ebare, 

-ebatur  ; 

-ebamur, 

-ebamim, 

-ebantur. 

reg 

-ebar, 

-ebaris 

or  ebare, 

-ebatur  ; 

-ebamur, 

-ebamini, 

-ebantur. 

aud 

-iebar, 

-iebaris  or  iebare, 

-iebatur  ; 

-iebamur, 

-iebaminT,  -iebantur. 

FUTURE. 

am 

-abor, 

-aberis 

or  abere, 

-abitur  ; 

-abimur, 

-abimini, 

-abuntur. 

mon 

-ebor, 

-eberis 

or  ebere, 

-ebitur  ; 

-ebimur, 

-ebimini, 

-ebuntur. 

reg 

-ar, 

-eris 

or  ere, 

-etur  ; 

-emur, 

-emini, 

-entur. 

aud 

-iar, 

-ieris 

or  iere, 

-ietur  ; 

-iemur, 

-iemini, 

-ientur. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

/ 

PRESENT. 

am 

-er, 

-eris 

or  ere, 

-etur  ; 

-emur, 

-emini, 

-entur. 

mon 

-ear, 

-earis 

or  eare, 

-eatur  ; 

-eamur, 

-eamini, 

-eantur 

reg 

-ar, 

-aris 

or  are, 

-atur  ; 

-amur, 

-amim, 

-antur. 

aud 

-iar, 

-iaris 

or  iare, 

-iatur  ; 

-iamur, 

-iamim, 

-iantur. 

IMPERFECT. 

am 

-arer, 

-areris 

or  are  re, 

-aretur  ; 

-aremur, 

-aremim, 

-arentur. 

mon 

-erer, 

-ereris 

or  erere, 

-eretur  ; 

-eremur, 

-eremim, 

-erentur. 

reg 

-erer, 

-ereris 

or  erere, 

-eretur  ; 

-eremur, 

-ereminl, 

-erentur. 

aud 

-Irer, 

-ireris 

or  Irere, 

-iretur  ; 

-Iremur, 

-iremini, 

-Irentur. 

PRESENT. 

IMPERATIVE.        FuTURE 

SINQTTLAB. 

PLUBAL 

SINGULAR. 

PLTJKAL. 

am 

-are, 

-amim  ; 

-ator, 

-ator  ; 



-antor. 

mon 

-ere, 

-emini  ; 

-etor, 

-6tor  ; 



-entor. 

reg 

-ere, 

-imini  ; 

-itor, 

-itor  ; 

.  

-untor. 

aud 

-Ire, 

•Imini  ; 

-itor, 

-Itor  ; 



-iuntor. 

PRES.  INFINITIVE. 

GERUNDIVE. 

am 

-an; 

-andus. 

mon 

-erl; 

-endus. 

reg 

-I; 

-endus. 

aud 

-m; 

-iendus 

1  In  these  and  the  following  endings  re  takes  the  place  ofris:  aris  or  are,  dMris  or 
dbdre.  He  is  formed  from  ris  by  dropping  final  «  and  then  changing  final  i  to  e;  see 
86,  5 ;  34, 1,  note ;  also  337. 


104  VERBS. 

COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS. 
215.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

PERFECT     SYSTEM.  i 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
PERFECT. 

-istl,         -it  ;  -imus,  -Istis,         -erunt,  ere.* 

amav  ]  PLUPERFECT. 

monu   I 

rgx       >  -eram,       -eras,       -erat  ;          -eramus,       -eratis,       -erant. 

audlv  J 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
-ero,          -ens,        -erit;  -erimus,        -eritis,       -erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amav  ]  PERFECT. 

monu   I       •  «  «  y 

rex       f  "enm>       •ens»        •ent  5          -erimus,       -entis,       -ermt. 

audlv  J 

\ 
amav  "I  PLUPERFECT. 

^°nu   l-issem,      -isses,      -isset;         -issemus,      -issetis,     -issent. 
audlv  J 

am-v  -^  PERFECT  INFINITIVE. 

ru  -isse- 

audlv  J 

SUPINE   SYSTEMS 
FUT.  INFINITIVE.       FUT.  PARTICIPLE.  SUPINE. 


-urus.  -um,  -u. 


1  For  the  Perfect  System,  see  233,  II.  ;  for  the  Supine  System,  22%,  III. 

a  From  the  comparative  view  presented  in  213-216,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  four 
conjugations  differ  from  each  other  only  in  the  formation  of  the  Principal  Parts  and  in 
the  endings  of  the  Present  System.  See  also  201,  foot-note. 


VERBS.  105 

COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS. 
216.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

SUPINE     SYSTEM. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

amat   1  PERFECT' 

-us  sum,     -us  es,         -us  est ;        -1 l.  sumus,    -I  estis,     -I  sunt. 


monit 

rect 

audit 


amat  l  PLUPERFECT. 

Set  ^  l  ~US  eram>    "US  eras>      "US  erat »       "l  eramus>     -1  eratis,   -I  erant. 
audit  J 

am-t  ,  FUTURE  PERFECT. 

Set l    I  "us  er^»       "us  eris>      "us  erit ;       ~l  e"mus»     -1  eritis,    -I  erunt. 
audit  J 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amat   1  PERFECT- 

Set 1    [  "us  s^m»       *us  sls>       "us  sit ;         "J  slmus>       '!  sit^s>       ^  s^nt> 
audit  J 

amat  ]  PLUPERFECT. 

Set J    I  "us  essem»  "us  essgs,  -us  esset ;    -I  essemus,    -I  essetis,  -I  essent, 
audit  J 

INFINITIVE. 

amat  1   PERFECT.  FUTURE. 

^°cf      -usesse.  -urnM. 

audit  J 

PERFECT  PARTICIPLE. 

amat  I 
monit  I 
rect         us> 
audit  J 


1  In  the  plural,  -us  becomes  -Z :  amat-l  sumus,  etc. 
6 


106  THIRD   CONJUGATION. 

217.  A  few  verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation  form  the  Present 
Indicative  in  15,  ior,  like  verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation.     They 
are  inflected  with  the  endings  of  the  Fourth  wherever  those  end- 
ings have  two  successive  vowels.     These  verbs  are — 

1.  Capid,  to  take ;  cupio,  to  desire ;  facid,  to  make  ;  fodw,  to  dig ;  fugid, 
to  flee ;  jacid,  to  throw ;  parid,  to  bear ;  quatid,  to  shake ;  rapid,  to  seize ; 
sapid,  to  be  wise,  with  their  compounds. 

2.  The  compounds  of  the  obsolete  verbs,  lacid,  to  entice,  and  specifr*  to 
look;  allicifi,  elicid,  illicit),  pellicid,  etc. ;  aspicid^  conspicid,  etc. 

8.  The  Deponent  Verbs :  gradior,  to  go ;  morior,  to  die ;  patior,  to  suffer; 
see  231. 

218.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Capio, /tafo?. 

VERB  STEM,  cap;  PRESENT  STEM,  cape? 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

PRES.  IND.  PRES.  INF.  PEBF.  IND.  SUPINE. 

capio,  capere,  cepl,  captum. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

SINGULAR.  P^SENT  TENSE.  pLURAL 

capio,  capis,  capit ;  |        capimus,  capitis,  capiunt. 

IMPERFECT. 
capiebam,  -iebas,  -iebat ;  |        capiebamus,  -iebatis,  -iebant. 

FUTURE. 
capiam,  -ies,  -iet ;  |       capiemus,  -ietis,  -lent. 

PERFECT. 
cepl,  -Istl,  -it ;  |        cepimus,  -Istis,  -erunt,  or  ere. 

PLUPERFECT. 
ceperam,  -eras,  -erat ;  |        ceperamus,  -eratis,  -erant. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
cepero,  -eris,  -erit ;  [        ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 
capiam,  -ias,  -iat ;  |        capiamus,  -iatis,  -iant. 

IMPERFECT. 
caperem,  -eres,  -eret ;  |        caperemus,  -eretis,  -erent. 

PERFECT. 
ceperim,  -eris,  -erit ;  |        ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 

PLUPERFECT. 
cepissem,  -isses,  -isset ;  |        cepissemus,  -issetis,  -issent. 

1  SpeciO  occurs,  but  is  exceedingly  rare. 
*  With  variable  vowel— e,  i :  cape^  capi> 


VERBS  IN  10.  10? 

IMPERATIVE. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Pres.  cape;  |  capite. 


Fut.    capito, 
capito ; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  capere. 
Perf.  cepisse. 
Fut.    capturus  esse. 

GERUND. 

Gen.  capiendl, 

Dot.  capiendo, 

Ace.  capiendum, 

Abl.  capiendo". 


capitote, 
capiunto. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  capiens. 
Fut.  capturus. 

SUPINE. 


Ace.    captum, 
Abl.    captu. 


219.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Capior,  lam  taken. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS* 

PEES.  IND,         PBES.  INP.  PEEP.  IND 

capior,          capi,          captus  sum. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 
SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

capior,  caperis,  capitur ;  |    capimur,  capiminl,  capluntur, 

IMPERFECT. 
capiebar,  -iebaris,  -iebatur ;         |    capiebamur,  -iebamim,  -iebantur, 

FUTURE. 
capiar,  -ieris,  -ietur ;  |    capieinur,  -ieminT,  -ientur. 

PERFECT. 
captus  sum,  es,  est ;  |    capti  sumus,  estis,  sunt. 

PLUPERFECT. 
captus  eram,  eras,  erat ;  |    capti  eramus,  eratis,  erant. 

FUTURE  PERFECT. 
captus  ero,  eris,  erit ;  |    capti  erimus,  eritis,  erunt. 


108  VERBAL  INFLECTIONS. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SINGULAR.  PRESENT.  PLURAL. 

capiar,  -iaris,  -iatur ;  |    capiamur,  -iaminl,  -iantur. 

IMPERFECT. 
caperer,  -ereris,  -eretur ;  |    caperemur,  -ereminl,  -erentur. 

PERFECT. 
captus  sim,  sis,  sit ;  |    capti  simus,  sitis,  sint. 

PLUPERFECT. 
captus  essem,  esses,  esset ;          |    capti  essemus,  essetis,  essent. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  capere;  |  capimim. 

Fut.    capitor, 

capitor ;  capiuntor. 


INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  capl. 
Perf.  captus  esse. 
Fut.    captum  Irl. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Perf.  captus. 
Fut.    capiendus. 


VERBAL   INFLECTIONS. 

220.  The  PRINCIPAL  PARTS  are  formed  in  the  four  conjuga- 
tions with  the  following  endings,  including  the  characteristic  vow- 
els, a,  e,  e,  I  : 

CONJ.  I.  6,        are,       avi,        atum, 

amo,     amare,  amavl,  amatura,  to  love. 
CONJ.  II.  In  a  few  verbs:           e5,        ere,       evi,        etum, 

deleO,     delere,   delevl,  deletum,  to  destroy. 
In  most  verbs:             e&,         ere,         ui,        itum, 

moneo,  monere,  monul,  monitura,  to  advise. 

CONJ.  III.  In  consonant  stems :        6,         ere,  si,          turn, 

carpO,  carpere,  carpsl,  carptum,  to  pluck. 

In  vowel  stems:             6,         ere,  I,          turn, 

acuo,    acuere,  acui,      acutum,  to  sharpen. 

CONJ.  IV.  16,         ire,       ivi,        itum, 

audio,    audlre,  audiyl,     audltum,  to  hear. 

221.  COMPOUNDS  of  verbs  with  dissyllabic  Supines  generally 
change  the  stem-vowel  in  forming  the  principal  parts : 

I.  WJien  the  Present  of  the  compound  has  i  for  e  of  the  simple  verb : 


VERBAL  INFLECTIONS.  f        1Q9 

1.  The  Perfect  and  Supine  generally  resume  the  e : l 

rego,  regere,  rexi,  rectum,  to  rule. 

dl-rigo,  dlrigere,          dlrexi,  dlrectum,          to  dared. 

2.  But  sometimes  only  the  Supine  resumes  the  e : l 

teneo,  tenere,  tenul,  tentum,  to  Jiold. 

de-tine6,         detinere,         detinui,         detentum,         to  detain. 

II.   When  the  Present  of  the  compound  has  i  for  a  of  the  simple  verb  : 

1.  The  Perfect  generally  resumes  the  vowel  of  the  simple  perfect,  and 
the  Supine  takes  e,1  sometimes  a; 

capi5,  capere,  <?£pit  captum,  to  take. 

ac-cipi6,  accipere,          accepi,  acceptum,          to  accept. 

2.  But  sometimes  the  Perfect  retains  i  and  the  Supine  takes  e : l 

rapio,  rapere,  rapul,  raptum,  to  seize. 

dl-ripio,          dlripere,          dlripul,          direptum,          to  tear  asunder. 

NOTE.— For  Reduplication  in  compounds,  see  255,  I.,  4;  other  peculiarities  of 
compounds  will  be  noticed  under  the  separate  conjugations. 

222.  All  the  forms  of  any  regular  verb  arrange  themselves  in 
three  distinct  groups  or  systems  : 

I.  The  PRESENT  SYSTEM,  with  the  Present  Infinitive  as  its  basis, 
comprises — 

1.  The  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Future  Indicative — Active  and  Passive. 

2.  The  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive — Active  and  Passive. 

3.  The  Imperative — Active  and  Passive. 

4.  The  Present  Infinitive — Active  and  Passive. 

5.  The  Present  Active  Participle. 

6.  The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive. 

NOTE. — These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Present  Stem,  found  in  the 
Present  Infinitive  Active  by  dropping  the  ending  re :  amare,  present  stem 
AM!  ;  monere,  MONE  ;  regere,  REGE  ;  audire,  AUDI. 

II.  The  PERFECT  SYSTEM,  with  the  Perfect  Indicative  Active  as 
its  basis,  comprises  in  the  Active  Voice — 

1.  The  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

2.  The  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive. 

3.  The  Perfect  Infinitive. 

NOTE. — These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Perfect  Stem,  found  in  the 
Perfect  Indicative  Active,  by  dropping  I :  amavi,  perfect  stem  AMAV  ; 
monui,  MONU. 

III.  The  SUPINE  SYSTEM,  with  the  Supine  as  its  basis,  comprises — 
1  The  favorite  vowel  before  cc,  or  two  or  more  consonants ;  see  24, 1. 


110 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


1.  The  Supines  in  um  and  u,  the  former  of  which  with  iri  forms  the 
Future  Infinitive  Passive. 

2.  The  Future  Active  and  Perfect  Passive  Participles,  the  former  of 
which  with  esse  forms  the  Future  Active  Infinitive,  and  the  latter  of  which 
with  the  proper  parts  of  the  auxiliary  sum  forms  in  the  Passive  those 
tenses  which  in  the  Active  belong  to  the  Perfect  System. 

NOTE. — These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Supine  Stem,  found  in  the 
Supine  by  dropping  um :  amdtum,  supine  stem  AMAT  ;  monitum,  MONIT. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION 

FIRST  CONJUGATION. 
223.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— AmS,  Hove. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
am5,        amare,        amavi,        amatum. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  amo 
Imp.   amabam 
Fut.    amabo 


Perf.  am  a  vi 
Plup.  amaveram 
F.  P.  amavero 


2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  ama. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amem 
amarem 


IMPER. 

ama 


INFINITIVE. 

amare 


amato 
Gerund,  amandl,  do,  etc. 

3.  PERFECT  SYSTEM  ;  STEM,  amdv. 

amaverim  amavisse 

amavissem 

4.  SUPINE  SYSTEM;  STEM,  amat. 

|  |    amaturus  esse 

Supine,  amatum,  amatu. 


PAETICIPLB. 

amans 


amaturus 


224.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Amor,  lam  loved. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
amor,        amari,        amatus  sum. 


Pres.  amor 
Imp.   amabar 
Fwt.    amabor 


2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  ama. 


amer 
amarer 


amare 


amari 


amator 
Gerundive,  amandus, 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


Ill 


INDICATIVE. 


Perf.  amatus  sum 
Plup.  amatus  eram 
F.  P.  amatus  ero 
Fut. 


3.  SUPINE  SYSTEM  ;  STEM,  amat. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.  IMPEE.  INFINITIVE. 

amatus  sim  amatus  esse 

amatus  essem 

amatum  Irl 


PAETICIPLE. 

amatus 


SECOND  CONJUGATION. 
225.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Moneo,  I  advise. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
monere,  monui,  monitum. 


mone6, 


Pres.  moneo 
Imp.  monebam 
Fut.   monebo 


Perf.  monui 
Plup.  monueram 
F.  P.  monuero 


Fut. 


PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  mone. 


inoneam 
monerem 


mone 


monere 


monens 


moneto 
Gerund,  monendi,  do,  etc. 

3.  PERFECT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  monu. 

monuerim  monuisse 

monuissem 


4.  SUPINE  SYSTEM;  STEM,  mmit. 
|  |  |  moniturus  esse  |  moniturus 

Shtpine,  monitum,  monitu. 


226.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Moneor,  lam  advised. 
1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


moneor, 


Pres.  moneor 
Imp.  monebar 
Fut.   monebor 


moneri, 


monitus  sum. 


2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  mone. 

monear  monere  moneri 

monerer 

monetor 
Gerundive,  monendus. 

3.  SUPINE  SYSTEM;  STEM,  monit. 


Perf.  monitus  sum 
Plup.  monitus  eram 
F.  P.  monitus  ero 
Fut. 


monitus  sim 
monitus  essem 


monitus  esse 


monitum  Irl 


monitus 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


THIRD  CONJUGATION. 
237.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Rego,  I  rule. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
reg5,  regere,  rexl,  rectum. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres,  rego 
Imp.   rege  bam 
Put.    ^e 


Perf.  rexl 
Plup.  rSxeram 
F.  P.  rexero 


Fut. 


2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  rege. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

regam 
regerem 


IMPERATIVE.  !        INFINITIVE. 


rege 

regito 
Gerund,  regendl,  do,  etc. 


regere 


PARTICIPLE. 

regens 


3.  PERFECT  SYSTEM;  STEM, 

rexerim 
rexissem 


rexisse 


4.  SUPINE  SYSTEM;  STEM,  red. 

\  |  recturus  esse  |    recturus 

Supine,  rectum,  rectu. 


228.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Regor,  /  am  ruled. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
regor,  regi,  rectus  sum. 

2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  rege. 

regere  regi 

regitor 
Gerundive,  regendus. 


Pres.  regor 
Imp.   regebar 
Fut.    regar 


regar 
regerer 


Perf.  rectus  sum 
Plup.  rectus  eram 
F.  P.  rectus  ero 
Fut. 


3.  SUPINE  SYSTEM;  STEM,  red. 


rectus  sim 


rectus  essem 


rectus  esse 
rectum  Irl 


rectus 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


113 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 
339.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Audio,  /  hear. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
audi5,  audire,  audivl,  audltum. 

2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  audi. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  audio 
Imp.   audie"bam 
Fut.    audiam 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

audiam 
audlrem 

IMPEE. 

audi 
audito 

INFINITIVE. 

audire 

PAETICIPLE. 

audiens 

Gerund,  audiendi,  do,  etc. 

3.  PERFECT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  audiv. 

Perf.  audivl 
Plup.  audiveram 
F.  P.  audlvero 

audlverim 
audlvissem 

audlvisse 

4.  SUPINE  SYSTEM;  STEM,  audit. 

\  |  |  auditurus  esse  j  audlturus 

Supine,  audltum,  audltu. 


330.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Audior,  /  am  heard. 

I.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS 
audior,  audiri,  auditus  sum. 


Pres.  audior 
Imp.   audiebar 
Fut.    audiar 


2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  audi. 

audiar  audire  audiri 

audlrer 

auditor 
Gerundive,  audiendus 

3.  SUPINE  SYSTEM  ;  STEM,  audit. 


Perf.  auditus  sum 
Plup.  auditus  eram 
F.  P.  auditus  ero 
Fut. 


auditus  sim 
auditus  essem 


auditus  esse 
audltum  Irl 


auditus 


114 


DEPONENT  VERBS. 


DEPONENT    VERBS. 

23 1 .  Deponent  Verbs  have  in  general  the  forms  of  the  Passive 
Voice  with  the  signification  of  the  Active.     But — 

1.  They  have  also  in  the  Active,  the  future  infinitive,  the  participles, 
gerund,  and  supine. 

2.  The  gerundive  generally  has  the  passive  signification ;  sometimes 
also  the  perfect  participle :  hortandus,  to  be  exhorted ;  expertus,  tried. 

3.  The  Future  Infinitive  of  the  Passive  form  is  rare,  as  the  Active  form 
is  generally  used. 

NOTE.— The  synopsis  of  a  single  example  will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  peculiarities 
of  Deponent  Verbs. 

232.  Hortor,  I  exhort. 

1.  PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
hortor,  hortari,  hortatus  sum. 


INDICATIVE. 


2.  PRESENT  SYSTEM;  STEM,  horta. 

SUBJUNCTIVE.       !      IMPEB.      I          INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 


hortor  l 
Imp.  hortabar 
Fut.    hortabor 


horter 
hortarer 


!  hortare 


hortari 


Gerund,  hortandl. 


hortator 
Gerundive,  hortandus. 


3.  SUPINE  SYSTEM;  STEM,  hortat. 


Perf.  hortatus  sum 
Plup.  hortatus  eram 
F.  P.  hortatus  ero 
Fut. 


hortatus  sim 
hortatus  essem 


hortatus  esse 


hortaturus  esse 


hortans 


hortatus 


hortaturus 


Supine,  hortatum,  hortatu. 


NOTE. — For  the  Principal  Parts  of  Deponent  Verbs  in  the  other  conjugations,  see 
268,  283,  and  288.  From  these  Principal  Parts  the  pupil,  by  the  aid  of  the  paradigms 
already  learned,  will  be  able  to  inflect  any  Deponent  Verb. 

PERIPHRASTIC   CONJUGATION. 

233.  The  ACTIVE  PEKIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATION,  formed 
by  combining  the  Future  Active  Participle  with  sum,  de- 
notes an  intended  or  future  action: 

1  The  tenses  are  inflected  regularly  through  the  persons  and  numbers  :  hortor,  hor- 
tdris,  hortdtur,  hortdmur,  hortdmim,  hortaniur.  All  the  forms  in  this  synopsis  have 
the  active  meaning,  /  exhort,  I  was  exhorting,  etc.,  except  the  Gerundive,  which  has 
the  passive  force,  deserving  to  be  exhorted,  to  be  exhorted.  The  Gerundive,  as  it  is 
passive  in  meaning,  cannot  be  used  in  intransitive  Deponent  Verbs,  except  in  an  imper- 
sonal sense;  see  301, 1. 


PECULIARITIES  IN  CONJUGATION. 


115 


Amaturus  sum,  /  am  about  to  love. 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  amaturus  sum  * 
Imp.   amaturus  eram 
Fut.    amaturus  ero 
Perf.  amaturus  fui 
Plup.  amaturus  fueram 
F.  P.  amaturus  fuero J 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amaturus  sim 
amaturus  essem 

amaturus  fuerim 
amaturus  fuissem 


INFINITIVE. 

amaturus  esse 
amaturus  fuisse 


234.  The  PASSIVE  PEKIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATION,  formed 
by  combining  the  Gerundive  with  sum,  denotes  necessity  or 

duty. 

Amandus  sum,  I  must  be  loved.9 


Pres.  amandus  sum 
Imp.   amandus  eram 
Fut.    amandus  ero 
Perf.  amandus  f ul 
Plup.  amandus  fueram 
F.  P.  amandus  fuero 


amandus  sim 
amandus  essem 

amandus  fuerim 
amandus  fuissem 


amandus  esse 
amandus  fuisse 


NOTE.— The  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  term,  includes  all 
forms  compounded  of  participles  with  sum  ;  but  as  the  Pres.  Part,  with  sum  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  Pres.  Ind.  (amdns  est  =  amat),  and  is  accordingly  seldom  used,  and  as  the 
Perf.  Part,  with  sum  is,  in  the  strictest  sense,  an  integral  part  of  the  regular  conjugation, 
the  term  Periphrastic  is  generally  limited  to  the  two  conjugations  above  given. 


PECULIARITIES 


CONJUGATION. 


235.  Perfects  in  avi,  evi,  Ivi,  and  the  tenses  derived 
from  them,  sometimes  drop  v  and  suffer  contraction  before 
s  and  r,  and  sometimes  before  t.  Thus  — 

A  with  the  following  vowel  becomes  a:  amavistl  (amalstl),  amastl; 
amdveram  (amaeram),  amdram  ;  amdvisse  (amaisse),  amdsse;  amdvit  (ama- 
it),  amdt. 

E  with  the  following  vowel  becomes  e  :  rievl  (to  spin),  nevistl  (nelsti), 
riestl  ;  neverunt  (neerunt),  nerunt. 

I-I  and  1-i  become  I  :  audlvlsll  (audilstl),  audlsti  ;  audlvissem  (audiis- 
sem),  audissem  ;  audivit  (audiit),  audit. 

1.  Perfects  in  Ivl  sometimes  drop  v  in  any  of  their  forms,  but  generally 
without  contraction,  except  before  s:  audlvi,  audii,  audiit  ,  audieram  ;  audi- 
visti,  audilstl  or  audlsti. 


1  The  periphrastic  forms  are  inflected  regularly  through  the  persons  and  numbers: 
amdturus  sum,  es,  eat.    The  Fut.  Perf.  is  exceedingly  rare. 

2  Or,  7  deserve  (ought)  to  be  loved. 


116  PECULIARITIES  IN  CONJUGATION. 

2.  Perfects  in  ovl. — The  perfects  of  nosco,  to  know,  and  moved,  to  move, 
sometimes  drop  v  and  suffer  contraction  before  r  and  s :  novlstl,  ndstl. 

3.  Perfects  in  si  and  xl  sometimes  drop  Is,  is,  or  sis :  scripsisti,  scrlpstl  • 
dlxisse,  dlxe  /  accesslstis,  accestis. 

236.  The  ending  ere  for  erunt  in  the  Perfect  is  com- 
mon in  Livy  and  the  poets,  but  rare  in  Cicero  and  Caesar. 

NOTE.— The  form  in  ere  does  not  drop  v.    In  poetry  erunt  occurs. 

237.  Re  for  ris  in  the  ending  of  the  second  Person  of  the  Passive  is 
rare  in  the  Present  Indicative,  but  common  in  the  other  tenses. 

238.  Die,  due,  fac,  and  fer,  for  dice,  duce,  face,  and  fere,  are  the 
Imperatives  of  died,  ducb,  facib,  and  fero,  to  say,  lead,  make,  and  bear. 

NOTE  1.— Dice,  duce,  and  face  occur  in  poetry. 

NOTE  2.— Compounds  follow  the  simple  verbs,  except  those  of/ac*0,  which  change  a 
into  i :  cdnjice. 

239.  Undus  and  undi  for  endus  and  endl  occur  as  the  endings  of  the 
Gerundive  and  Gerund  of  Conj.  III.  and  IV.,  especially  after  i :  faciundus, 
from  facib,  to  make ;  dicundus,  from  died,  to  say. 

240.  ANCIENT  AND  RARE  FORMS. — Various  other  forms,  belonging  in 
the  main  to  the  earlier  Latin,  occur  in  the  poets,  even  of  the  classical 
period,  and  occasionally  also  in  prose,  to  impart  to  the  style  an  air  of  an- 
tiquity or  solemnity.     Thus  forms  in — 

1.  ibam  for  iebam,  in  the  Imperfect  Ind.  of  Conj.  IV. :  scibam  for 
sciebam.     See  Imperfect  of  eo,  to  go,  295. 

2.  ibo,  Ibor,  for  iam,  iar,  in  the  Future  of  Conj.  IV. :  servibb  for  ser- 
viam;  opperibor  for  opperiar.     See  Future  of  eo,  295. 

3.  im  for  am  or  em,  in  the  Pres.  Subj. :  edim,  edls,  etc.,  for  edam,  edds, 
etc. ;  duim  (from  duo,  for  do),  for  dem. — In  sim,  velim,  nolim,  mdlim  (204 
and  293),  im  is  the  common  ending.  . 

4.  asso,  ess6,  and  so,  in  the  Future  Perfect,  and  assim,  essim,  and 
sim,  in  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  of  Conj.  I.,  II.,  III. :  faxo  (facso)  for 
fecero l  (from  facio ) ;  faxim  for  fecerim l  ;  ausim  for  ausits  sim  (for  ause- 
rim,  from  audeo).     Rare  examples  are :  le^asso  for  levdvero  ;  prohibesso  for 
pi'ohibuerb  ;  jusso  for  jussero  ;  capsb  for  cepei'd  ;  azo  for  egerb  ;  occisit  for 
occiderit ;  taxis  for  tetigeris. 

5.  to  and  mind  for  tor,  the  former  in  both  numbers,  the  latter  in  the 
singular,  of  the  Future  Imperative,  Passive  and  Deponent :  arbitral,  arbi- 
trdminb  for  arbitrator  ;  utuntb  for  utuntor. 

6.  ier  for  i  in  the  Present  Passive  Infinitive  :  amdrier  for  amdri ;  vide- 
rier  for  videri. 

1  Remember  that  r  in  era  and  trim  was  originally  5;  see  31, 1 ;  £04,  foot-note  2. 


ANALYSIS  OF  VERBAL  ENDINGS.  H? 

ANALYSIS    OF    VERBAL    ENDINGS. 

241.  The  endings  which  are  appended  to  the  stems  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  various  parts  of  the  finite  verb  contain  three  distinct 
elements ; 

1.  The  TENSE-SIGN  :  ba  in  ama-ba-m,  rege-ba-s. 

2.  The  MOOD- VOWEL  :          a  in  mone-a-s,  reg-a-s. 

3.  The  PERSONAL  ENDING  :  a  in  mone-a-sy  reg-a-s. 

I.  TENSE-SIGNS. 

242.  The  Present  is  without  any  tense-sign:  amd-s.     So  also 
the  Future l  in  Conjugations  III.  and  IV. 

343.  In  the  other  tense-forms  of  all  regular  verbs,  the  tense-sign 
is  found  in  the  auxiliary  with  which  these  forms  are  all  compounded  : 
Ama-bam*  amav-eram ;  ama-bd,  amav-erb ;  morie-bam,  monu-eram. 

II.  MOOD-SlGNS. 

244.  The  Indicative  has  no  special  sign  to  mark  the  Mood. 

245.  The  Subjunctive  has  a  long  vowel — a,  e,3  or  I4 — before 
the  Personal  Endings : 

Mbne-a-mus,  mone-d-tis,  am-e-mus,  am-e-tis,  s-i-mus,  s-i-tis. 

NOTE.— This  vowel  is  shortened  before  final  m  and  £,  and  generally  in  the  Perfect 
before  s,  mus^  and  Us .  moneam,  amet,  sit^fuerlSj  amdverlmuSi  amdveritis. 

1  This  Future  is  in  form  a  Present  Subjunctive,  though  it  has  assumed  in  full  the 
force  of  the  Future  Indicative;  see  foot-note  4  below. 

2  Bam,  and  eram  are  both  auxiliary  verbs  in  the  Imperfect,  the  former  from  the  stem 
bhu,  the  old  form  of  fu  in  fu-l,  and  the  latter  from  the  stem  es  ;  the  former  added  to  the 
Present  stem  forms  the  Imperfect,  the  latter  added  to  the  Perfect  stem  forms  the  Pluper- 
fect.   £5  and  erd  are  Future  forms,  the  former  from  Wiw,  the  latter  from  es;  the  former 
added  to  the  Present  stem  forms  the  Future  in  Conjugations  I.  and  II.,  the  latter  added 
to  the  Perfect  stem  forms  the  Future  Perfect.   In  the  Subjunctive  the  tense-forms,  except 
the  Present,  are  compounded  with  Subjunctive  tense-forms  from  es;  thus,  erem  in  reg- 
erem  is  for  esem,  the  old  form  of  essem  ;  erim  in  rex-erim  is  for  esim  =  «*w,  and  issem 
in  rex-issem  is  for  essem  ;  thus  the  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive  of  sum  added  to 
the  Perfect  stem  form  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive. 

3  This  e  comes  from  a-l,  of  which  the  I  alone  is  the  true  Mood-Sign. 

4  The  Latin  Subjunctive  contains  the  forms  of  two  distinct  Moods— the  Subjunctive 
with  the  sign  a,  and  the  Optative  with  the  sign  I,  sometimes  contained  in  e  for  a-?. 
Thus :  Subjunctive,  mone-d-mus,  audi-d-tis ;  Optative,  s-l-mus,  rexer-i-tis,  am-e-mu* 
for  ama-l-mus,  reger-e-s  for  regera-i-8.    The  Subjunctive  and  Optative  forms,  originally 
distinct,  have  in  the  Latin  been  blended  into  one  Mood,  called  the  Subjunctive,  and  are 
used  without  any  difference  of  meaning.    Thus  the  Mood  in  mone-d-mus,  a  Subjunctive 
form,  has  precisely  the  same  force  as  in  am-e-mus,  an  Optative  form.    The  First  Person 
Singular  of  Futures  in  am—regam,  audiam,  etc.— is  in  form  a  Subjunctive,  while  the 
other  Persons,  reges,  et,  etc.,  audits,  et,  etc.,  are  in  form  Optatives. 


118 


PERSONAL  ENDINGS. 


246.  The  Imperative  is  distinguished  by  its  Personal  Endings ; 
see  247,  3. 

III.  PERSONAL  ENDINGS. 

247.  The  Personal  Endings  are  formed  from  ancient  pronom- 
inal stems,  and  have,  accordingly,  the  force  of  pronouns  in  Eng- 
lish.    They  are  as  follows : 


PEBSON.           ACTIVE. 

PASSIVE. 

MEANING. 

Singular.1 

First                m 

r 

/ 

Second              s 

ris 

thou,  you 

Third              t 

tur 

he,  s/i€,  it 

Plural? 

First                mus 

mur 

we 

Second              tis 

mini3 

you 

Tliird              nt 

ntur 

they 

EXAMPLES. 

amaba-m 

amaba-r 

rego 

rego-r 

amaba-s 

amaba-ris 

regi-s 

rege-ris 

amaba-t 

amaba-tur 

regi-t 

regi-tur 

amaba-mus 

amaba-mur 

regi-mus 

regi-mur 

amaba-tis 

amaba-rainl 

regi-tis 

regi-mini 

amaba-nt 

amaba-ntur 

regu-nt 

regu-ntui 

1.  OMITTED. — In  the  Present,4  Perfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Ind.  of  all 
the  conjugations,  and  in  the  Future  Ind.  of  Conjugations  I.  and  II.,  the 
ending  m  does  not  appear.     In  these  forms  the  First  Person  ends  in  6 : 5 
amd,  amabo,  amdverd  ;  except  in  the  Perfect,  where  it  ends  in  i : 6  amavl. 

2.  The  endings  of  the  Perfect  Active  are  peculiar.     They  are  the  same 
as  in  ful : 

1  In  the  Singular  these  Personal  Endings  contain  each— (1)  in  the  Active  Voice  one 
pronominal  stem,  m,  I ;  s,  thou,  you ;  t,  he ;  and  (2)  in  the  Passive  two  such  stems,  one 
denoting  the  Person,  and  the  other  the  Passive  Voice :  thus,  in  the  ending  tur,  t  (tu) 
denotes  the  person,  and  r,  the  voice.    B  of  the  first  person  stands  for  m-r. 

2  In  the  Plural  the  Endings  contain  each — (1)  in  the  Active  two  pronominal  stems : 
mu-s  —  m  (mu)  and  s,  I  and  you,  i.  e.,  we ;  tis  =  t  (the  original  form  for  8,  thou,  as  seen 
in  tu,  thou)  and  8,  =  8  and  s,  thou  and  thou,  i.  e.,  you;  nt  =  n  and  t,  he  and  he,  i.  e.,  they; 
and  (2)  in  the  Passive  three  such  stems,  the  third  denoting  the  Passive  Voice :  thus  in 
ntur,  nt  (ntu)  denotes  the  person  and  number,  and  r,  the  voice. 

3  Mini  was  not  originally  a  Personal  Ending,  but  the  Plural  of  a  Passive  Participle, 
not  otherwise  used  in  Latin,  but  seen  in  the  Greek  (/xevoi).   Amdmini,  originally  amami- 
nl  estis,  means  you  are  loved,  as  amutl  estfe  means  you  have  been  laved. 

4  Except  in  sum,  I  am,  and  inquam,  I  say. 

5  The  origin  of  this  final  6  is  uncertain.    Curtius  regards  it  as  simply  the  thematic 
vowel,  but  Meyer  recognizes  in  it  a  suffix  combined  with  the  thematic  vowel;  see  Cur- 
tius, Verbum,  I.,  pp.  199,  200;  Meyer,  p.  349. 

fi  Probably  a  part  of  the  stem;  but  see  Curtius,  Verbum,  II.,  p.  1T3;  Papillon,  pp.  194- 
196 ;  also  two  papers  by  the  author,  on  the  Formation  of  the  Tenses  for  Completed  Action 
in  the  Latin  Finite  Verb;  Transactions  of  the  Am.  Phil.  Assoc.,  1874  and  1875. 


FORMATION  OF  STEMS.  119 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

First  Pers.  fu-1 1  fu-i-nms 

Second  fu-ls-tl  fu-is-tis 

Third  fu-i-t  fu-eru-nt  or  ere 

3.  The  Imperative  Mood  has  the  following  Personal  Endings : 


ACTIVE. 

PASSIVE. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres.  Second  Pers. 

a 

te 

re 

mini 

Fut.   Second 

t6 

tote 

tor 

Third 

to 

ntO 

tor 

ntor 

248.  Infinitives,  Participles,  Gerunds,  and  Supines  are  formed 

with  the  following  endings : 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Infinitive  Present  re  (ere)  ri  (eri),  1 

Perfect  isse  us  esse 

Future  urus  esse  um  irl 

Participle  Present  ns 

Future  urus 
Perfect  us 

Gerundive  ndus 

Gerund  ndi 

rine  um,  u 


FORMATION  OF   STEMS. 

249.  The  three  Special  Stems  are  all  formed  from  the  Verb  Stem. 

I.   PRESENT  STEM. 

250.  The  Present  Stem,  found  in  the  Present  Infinitive  Active 
by  dropping  re,  is  generally  the  same  as  the  Verb  Stem  in  the  First 
and  in  the  Fourth  Conjugations,  and  sometimes  in  the  Second. 
Thus,  amd,  dele,  and  audl 3  are  both  Present  Stems  and  Verb  Stems. 

1  M  is  omitted  in  the  first  person,  and  ft,  an  ancient  form  of  «i,  s,  is  used  in  the  sec- 
ond.   Otherwise  the  endings'  themselves  are  regular,  but  in  the  second  person  tl  and  tis 
are  preceded  by  zs,  and  erunt  in  fu-erunt  is  for  esunt,  the  full  form  for  sunt.    Thus 
fu-erunt  is  a  compound  of  fu  and  esunt  for  sunt.    Fu-lstis,  in  like  manner,  may  be  a 
compound  of  fu  and  istis  for  estis,  and  fu-uti,  offu  and  istl  for  estl  for  es. 

2  In  the  Present  the  ending  is  dropped  in  the  Sing.  Act.,  and  the  endings  te  and  re 
are  shortened  from  tis  and  ris  of  the  Indicative  by  dropping  «  and  changing  final  i  into 
e  ;  see  24, 1,  note.    In  the  Future,  to  of  the  second  person  corresponds  to  tl  of  the  Per- 
fect Ind.;  to  and  ntd  of  the  third  person  to  t  and  nt.    Tor  and  ntor  add  r  to  to  and  ntb. 
Tote  doubles  the  pronominal  stem. 

3  The  final  vowels  are  generally  explained  as  derived  from  aja,  which  became,  in 
Conj.  I.,  ajo,  shortened  to  6  in  am-5,  and  to  a  in  the  other  forms,  as  am-d-mus;  in 


120  FORMATION  OF  STEMS. 

251.  The  Present  Stem,  when  not  the  same  as  the  Verb  Stem, 
is  formed  from  it  by  one  of  the  following  methods  : 

1.  By  adding  a  short  vowel,  called  the  Thematic  vowel : l 

re£? ;  Stem,  reg ;  Present  Stem,  rege ;  to  rule. 

canO ;  "     can ;  cane ;  to  sing. 

2.  By  adding  a  Thematic  vowel  preceded  by  n,  sc,  or  t : 

sinO ;  Stem,  si ;  Present  Stem,  sine  ;  to  permit. 

sperno ;  *     sper,  spre ;  sperne ;  to  spurn. 

temno ;  ^          ;     tern ;  temne ;  to  despise. 

veterasco ;       *     vetera ;  veterascc ;  to  grow  old. 

cresco;  '     ere;  cresce;  to  increase. 

plecto ;  c     plec ;  plecte ;  to  braid. 

3.  By  adding  a  Thematic  vowel  preceded  by  i  or  j  : 

capip  ;         Stem.)  cap  ;  Present  Stem,  cap-je,  cape ; a     to  take. 

pellfi ;  "     pel ;  pel-je,  pelle ; 2    to  drive. 

currO ;  "     cur ;  cur-je,  curre ; a    to  run. 

4.  By  adding  a  Thematic  vowel  and  inserting  n — changed  to  m  before 
a  labial,  b  or  p  ;  see  33,  3  : 

frango  ;        Stem,  frag ;  Present  Stem,  frange  ;  to  break. 

fimdoj  u     fud;  funde;  to  pour. 

rumpo ;  "     rup ;  rumpe ;  toourst. 

5.  By  adding  a,  e,  or  I : 

juv6 ;  Stem,  juv ;  Present  Stem,  juva ;  to  assist. 

video;  "    vid;  vide;  to  see. 

haurid;  "    haur /0p  haus ;  haurl;  to  draw. 

6.  By  reduplicating  the  stem  : 

sisto ;          Stem,  sta ;  Present  Stem,  sista,3  eiste ;        to  place. 

serd ;  u     sa ;  eisa,  sise,  sere ; 4  to  sow. 

NOTE.— Sometimes  two  of  these  methods  are  united  in  the  same  stem : 

glgnO ;        Stem,  gen ;  Present  Stem,  gigene,  gigne  ; 6  to  beget. 

nanciscor ;      "     nac ;  nancisce ; e          to  obtain. 

Conj.  II.,  ejo,  shortened  to  ed  in  del-ed,  and  to  e  in  del-e-mus;  and  in  Conj.  IV.,  ijo, 
shortened  to  id  in  aud-io,  to  iu  in  aud-iu-nt,  and  to  I  in  aud-l-mus;  see  335,  foot-note. 

1  This  Thematic  vowel,  originally  a,  is  generally  weakened  to  e  or  i :  reg-e-re,  reg-i- 
mus;  but  sometimes  it  appears  to  take  the  form  of  6  or  u :  reg-6,  reg-u-nt.  There  is, 
however,  some  difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  6  in  such  cases ;  see 
247, 1,  foot-note  5 

3  With  variable  Thematic  vowel ;  see  foot-note  1,  above.  J,  pronounced  y,  assimi- 
lated to  I  and  r  in  pelle  and  curre,  as  in  the  Greek  /3aAA«,  from  /3aA->>.  See  Curtius, 
Verbum,  I.,  p.  300. 

3  For  stista  for  stasta.   The  e  in  liste  takes  the  several  forms  of  the  Thematic  vowel. 

4  S  changed  to  r  between  two  vowels ;  see  31,  1.     The  vowel  a  of  the  stem  is 
weakened  to  i  before  «,  but  to  e  before  r  ;  see  24, 1  and  2. 

6  Reduplication  with  Thematic  vowel. 
•  N  inserted  and  i-soe  added. 


FORMATION  OF  STEMS.  121 

II.  PEKFECT  STEMS. 

252.  Vowel  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  by  adding  v: 

amo  (a-6),  araavi  ;    Stem,  ama  ;    Perfect  Stem,  amav  ;  to  love. 

deleo,         delevl;        "     dele;  delev;  to  destroy. 

audio,         audlvl;       "     audl  ;  audlv  ;  to  hear. 

1.  In  verbs  in  ud,  the  Perfect  Stem  is  the  same  as  the  Verb  Stem  : 
acuo,          acul  ;       Stem,  acu  ;     Perfect  Stem,  acu  ;  to  sharpen. 

253.  Many  Liquid  Stems,  and  a  few  others,  form  the  Perfect 
Stem  by  adding  u  : 

alo,  alul  ;  Stem,  al  ;       Perfect  Stem,  alu  ;  to  nourish. 

fremo,  fremui;       "     frem;  fremu;  to  rage. 

teneo,  tenui  ;         "     ten  ;  u  tenu  ;  to  hold. 

doceO,  docul  ;         "     doc  ;  docu  ;  to  teach. 

254.  Most  Consonant  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  by  adding  B: 

rego,  rexl  ;       Stem,  reg  :     Perfect  Stem,  rex  =  regs  ;         to  rule. 

scrlbo,        scripsl  ;      u     scrib  ;  "  scrips  =  scrlbs  ;  to  write. 

carpd,         carpsl  ;      u     carp  ;  carps  ;  to  pluck. 

255.  A  few  Consonant  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  without 
any  suffix  whatever.     But  of  these  — 

I.  Some  reduplicate  the  stem  :  l 
cano,       cecinl  ;       Stem,  can  ;     Perfect  Stem,  cecin  ;  to  sing. 

1.  The  KEDUPLICATION  consists  of  the  initial  consonant  (or  consonants) 
of  the  stem  with  the  following  vowel,  or  with  e  —  generally  with  the  follow- 
ing vowel,  if  that  vowel  is  e,  i,  o,  or  u,  otherwise  with  e  ;  see  examples  under 
271,  1,  and  373,  1. 

2.  The  STEM-VOWEL  a  is  generally  weakened  to  i,  sometimes  to  e  :  cado, 
cecidl  (for  cecad/i),  to  fall. 

3.  In  VERBS  BEGINNING  WITH  Sp  OB  St,  the  reduplication  retains  both  con- 
sonants, but  the  stem  drops  the  s  :  spondeo,  spopondl  (for  spospondi),  to  prom- 
ise ;  sto,  stetl  (for  stesti),  to  stand. 

4.  In  COMPOUNDS  the  reduplication  is  generally  dropped,  but  it  is  retained 
in  the  compounds  of  do,  to  give  ;  sto,  to  stand  ;  disco,  to  learn  ;  posed,  to 
demand  ;  and  sometimes  in  the  compounds  of  curro,  to  run  ;  responded,  re- 
spondl,  to  answer;  circum-dd,  circum-dedi  ;  circum-stS,  circum-stetl,  to  en- 
circle.   The  compounds  of  do  which  are  of  the  third  conjugation  change  e 
of  the  reduplication  into  i  :  ad-do,  ad-didl  (for  ad-dedi),  to  add  ;  see  259,  1. 

II.  Some  lengthen  the  Stem-Vowel  :  s 

emo,         6mi;  Stem,  em;          Perfect  Stem,   6m;          to  buy. 

ago,  v      effl;  "     a^;  eg;  to  drive. 

ab-igo,     ab-egl  ;  abig  ;  abeg  ;       to  drive  away. 

NOTE.—  The  stem-vowels  a  and  (in  compounds)  i  generally  become  e,  as  in  ago  and 
ab-igO. 


1  See  lists,  371,  1,  and  373,  1.  2  See  lists,  371,  2;  373,  2, 


122  CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 

III.  Some  retain  the  stem  unchanged  : ! 

Ico,  Ici ;  Stem,  Ic ;  Perfect  Stem,  ic ;  to  strike. 

vlso,         visl ;  "     vis ;  vis ;          to  visit. 

NOTE.— Of  the  few  verbs  belonging  to  this  class,  nearly  all  have  the  stem-syllable  long. 

III.  SUPINE  STEM. 

256.  The  Supine  Stem  adds  t  to  the  Verb  Stem  : 
am5,2       amatuin ;       Stem,  ama ;         Supine  Stem,  amat ;       to  love. 


died,  dictum ; 

moneO,  monitum ; 

delef>,  deletum ; 

audio,  audltum ; 

carpo,  carptum ; 


die ;  diet ;  to  say. 

moni ; 3  monit ;  to  advise. 

dele ;  delet ;  to  destroy. 

audi ;  audit ;  to  hear. 

carp;  carpt;  to  pluck. 


1.  Stems  in  d  and  t,  most  stems  in  1  and  r,  and  a  few  others,  change 
t  into  B  : 

Iaed5,  laesum  ;  Stem,  laed  ;  Supine  Stem,  laes ;  *  to  hurt. 

vertd,  versum ;  "     vert ;                                 vers ; 4  to  turn. 

verro,  versum;  "     verr;                                 vers;  tolrush. 

fallo,  falsum;  "     fall;                                  fals;  to  deceive. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS.6 
FIRST  CONJUGATION. 

CLASS  I. — STEM  IN  a :  PERFECT  IN  vi  OR  ui. 

257.  Principal  Parts  in— 0,  are,  avi,  atum.6 

These  endings  belong  to  most  verbs  of  this  conjugation.  The  follow- 
ing  are  examples : 

dono  donare  donavl  donatum,  to  bestow. 

honoro  honorare  honoravl  honoratum,          to  honor. 

llbero  llberare  tiberavl  liberStum,  to  free. 

nomino  nominare  nominavi  nominatum,         to  name. 

pugno  pugnare  pugnavl  pugnatum,  to  fight. 

spero  sperare  speravl  speratum,  to  hope. 

NOTE  l.—Poto,  are,  dvi,  utum,  to  drink,  has  also  a  supine,  potwm. 

NOTE  2. — Cenatus,  from  ceno,  '  to  dine,1  &n&jurdtu8,  fromjilro,  '  to  swear,1  are  active 
in  meaning,  having  dined,  etc.  Potus,  frompoto,  is  also  sometimes  active  in  meaning. 

1  See  list,  273,  3.  2  For  amaO.  a  See  207. 

4  Laes  is  for  laedt,  plans  for plaudt,  vis  for  vidt,  vers  for  vertt,  fals  forfallt,  vers 
for  verrt;  see  35,  3,  2),  note. 

6  The  Perfect  Formation  is  selected  as  the  special  basis  of  this  classification,  because 
the  irregularities  of  the  other  principal  parts  are  less  important  and  can  be  readily  as- 
sociated with  this  formation.  In  this  classification  the  regular  or  usual  formation  is  first 
given  with  a  few  examples,  then  complete  lists  (1)  of  all  the  simple  verbs  which  deviate 
from  this  formation,  and  (2)  of  such  compounds  as  deviate  in  any  important  particular 
from  their  simple  verbs. 

•  It  is  deemed  unnecessary  longer  to  retain  the  double  mark  ^  over  final  o  in  verbs. 
The  pupil  has  now  learned  that  this  vowel  may  be  short,  though  it  is  generally  long  in 
the  Augustan  poets. 


FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


123 


258.  Principal  Parts  in — 0,  are,  ul,  itum.1 


crepo 
cubo 
domo 
eneco 

frico 
mico 
plico 

seco 
sono 
tono 
veto 


crepare 
cubare 
domare 
enecare 

fricare 
micare 
plicare 

secare 
sonare 
tonare 
vetare 


crepiri 
cubui 
domui 
enecui 

fricui 

micui 

(  plicavi 

(  plicui 

secul 

somri 

tonui 

vetui 


crepitum,2 
cubitum,3 
domitum, 
enectum,4 
j  frictum,    ) 
(  fricatum,  j" 

5 

to  creak, 
to  recline. 
to  tame, 
to  Ml. 

to  rub. 
to  glitter, 
to  fold. 

to  cut. 
to  sound, 
to  thunder, 
to  forbid. 

plicatum,  ) 
plicitum,6  j 
sectum,1 
sonitum,7 

vetitum, 

CLASS  II. — PERFECT  isr  I. 

259.  Principal  Parts  in — 0,  are,  I,  turn. 

1.    WlTH   REDUPLICATION.8 

datum, 
statum, 


do 

sto 


juvo 
lavo 


dare 
stare 


dedi 
steti 


2.  WITH  LENGTHENED  STEM-VOWEL.S 


juvare 
lavare 


juvi 
lavi 


jutum,7 
( lavatum,9 } 
i  lautum,     V 
( lotum,       ) 


to  give, 
to  stand. 


to  assist. 
to  wash. 


NOTE  1. — In  do  the  characteristic  a  is  short  by  exception : 10  dabam^  dabo, 
etc.  Four  compounds  of  do — circumdo,  pessumdo,  vatisdo^  and  venmrndO — are  conju- 
gated like  the  simple  verb:  the  rest  are  of  the  Third  Conjugation  (271).  The  basis  of 
several  of  these  compounds  is  do,  'to  place,'  originally  distinct  from  do,  'to  give.1 

NOTE  2.— Compounds  of  sto  generally  want  the  Supine.  In  the  Perfect  they  have 
stetl,  if  the  first  part  is  a  dissyllable,  otherwise  stitl :  adsta,  adstare,  adstitl.  Dlsto  and 
escsto  want  Perfect  and  Supine. 


1  Note  deviations  in  the  Supine. 

2  Increpo,  are,  ui  (ovl\  itum  (atum) ;  discrepG,  are,  ul  (avT), . 

3  Compounds  which  insert  m,  as  accurribo,  etc.,  are  of  Conj.  III.;  see  273. 

4  The  simple  necO  is  regular,  and  even  in  the  compound  the  forms  in  dm  and  dtum 
occur. 

6  DlmicO,  are,  dm  (u~i),  dtum  ;  emicO,  are,  ul,  dtum. 

6  DuplicO,  multiplied,  replied,  and  supplied,  are  regular :  are,  dvi,  dtum. 

7  Sees  has  participle  secdturus;  sonO,  sondturus ;  juvO,  juvaturus,  in  compounds 
also  yuturus.    ResonO  has  Perfect  resondvl.    Most  compounds  of  sonO  want  the  Supine. 

8  See  255, 1.  and  II. 

9  In  poetry,  law  is  sometimes  of  Conj.  III. :  lavo,  lavere,  lam,  etc. 

10  This  short  vowel  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  do  is  a  root- verb  formed  directly  from 
the  root  da  without  the  suffix  from  which  the  a  is  derived  in  other  verbs  in  this  conju- 
gation; see  250,  foot-note. 


124: 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


260.  DEPONENT  VEBBS. 

In  this  conjugation  deponent  verbs  are  entirely  regular. 


c<5nor 
hortor 
miror 


conari 
hortari 
mlrari 


conatus  sum, 
hortatus  sum, 
miratus  sum, 


to  endeavor, 
to  exhort, 
to  admire. 


SECOND  CONJUGATION. 

CLASS  I. — STEM  IN  e :  PERFECT  IN  vi  OR  ul. 


261.  Principal  Parts  in — eo,  ere,  evl,  etum. 
These  endings  belong  to  the  following  verbs  : 

deleo  delere  delevi  deletum, 

compleo  complere  complevi  completum,1 


fleo 
neo 


flere 
nere 


flevi 
nevi 


fletum, 
netum,1 


to  destroy, 
tofll.    ' 
to  weep, 
to  spin. 


262.  Principal  Parts  in — eo,  ere,  ul,  itum. 
These  endings  belong  to  most  verbs  of  this  conjugation.     The 
following  are  examples  : 


debeo 

habeo 

moneo 

noceo 

pareo 

placeo 

taceo 


debere 

habere 

monere 

nocere 

parere 

placere 

tacere 


debul 

habui 

monui 

nocui 

parui 

placui 

tacui 


debitum, 
habitum, 
monitum, 
nocitum, 
paritum, 
placitum, 
taciturn, 


to  owe. 
to  have, 
to  advise, 
to  hurt, 
to  obey, 
to  please, 
to  be  silent. 


NOTE  1. — Many  verbs  with  the  Perfect  in  ui  want  the  Supine.    The  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  important : 


candeo,  to  shine. 
egeo,       to  want. 
emineo,  to  stand  forth. 
floreO,     to  bloom. 
frondeo,  to  bear  leaves. 
horreo,   to  shudder. 
lateo,      to  be  hid. 


madeo, 

niteo, 

oleo, 

palleO, 

pateo, 

ruheo, 

sileo, 


to  be  wet. 
to  shine, 
to  smell, 
to  be  pale, 
to  be  open, 
to  be  red. 
to  be  silent. 


sorbeo,  to  swallow. 

splendeO,  to  shine. 

studeO,  to  study. 

stupeo,  to  be  amazed. 

timeo,  to  fear. 

torpeo,  to  be  torpid. 

vireO,  to  be  green. 


NOTE  2.— Some  verbs,  derived  mostly  from  adjectives,  want  both  Perfect 
and  Supine.    The  following  are  the  most  important: 


albeo,     to  be  white. 
calveo,  to  be  bald. 
caneo,    to  be  gray. 
flaveo,    to  be  yelfow. 


hebeo,  to  be  blunt. 
umeo,  to  be  moist. 
immineO,  to  threaten. 
lacted,  to  suck. 


maereo,  to  be  sad. 

polleo,  to  be  powerful. 

renldeo,  to  shine. 

squaleo,  to  be  filthy. 


1  So  other  compounds  of  the  obsolete  pled :  expleO^  impleo,  etc. 

2  To  these  may  be  added  aboled,  aboUre,  abollvly  dbolitum,  4to  destroy,'  with  Supine 
in  itum.    See  also  abolesco,  877. 


SECOND  CONJUGATION. 


125 


CLASS  II. — STEM  IK  c,  n,  r,  OR  s:  PERFECT 

263.  Principal  Parts  in — eO,  ere,  ui,  turn  or  sum.2 

These  endings  belong  to  the  following  verbs  : 

censeo  censere  consul  censum,3 

doctum, 

{  mistum,  ) 
mixtum,  ) 
tentum,4 
tostum, 


doceo 
misceo 

teneo 
torreo 


censere 
docere 

miscere 

tenere 
torrere 


censui 
docul 

miscui 

tenui 
torrui 


ui.1 


to  think, 
to  teach. 

to  mix. 

to  hold, 
to  roast. 


CLASS  III. — STEM  IK  A  COSTSONAOT  :  PERFECT  IK  si  OR  I. 

264.  Principal  Parts  in — eo,  ere,  si,  turn. 

augeo  augere  auxi  auctum, 

indulges  indulgere  indulsi  indultum, 

torqueo  torquere  torsi  tortum, 


to  increase, 
to  indulge, 
to  twist. 


265.  Principal  Parts 
algeo  algere 


in- 


eo,  ere,  si,  sum.2 


ardeo 
conlveo 

frlgeo 

fulgeo 

haereo 

jubeo 

luceo 

lugeo 

maneo 

mulgeo 

mulceo 

rideo 

suadeo 

tergeo 

turgeo 

urgeo  (urgueo) 


ardere 
conivere 

frigere 

fulgere 

haerere 

jubSre 

lucere 

lugere 

manere 

mulgere 

mulcere 

rldere 

suadere 

tergere 

turgere 

urgere 


arsi 
(  comvi  ) 
(  conlxi  f 
f  rlxi  (rare) 
fulsi 
haesi 
jussi 
luxi 
luxi 
mansi 
mulsi 
mulsi 
risi 
suasi 
tersi 
tursi  (rare) 

ursT 

Srsum, 

5 

haesum,6 
jussum, 

mansum, 
mulsum, 
mulsum,1 
risum, 
suasum, 
tersum, 

to  be  cold, 
to  burn. 

to  wink  at. 

to  be  cold, 
to  shine, 
to  stick, 
to  order, 
to  shine, 
to  mourn, 
to  remain, 
to  milk, 
to  soothe, 
to  laugh, 
to  advise, 
to  wipe, 
to  swell, 
to  press. 


NOTE. — CieO,  ciere,  clvl,  citum,  to  arouse,  has  a  kindred  form,  cid,  clre,  civl,  cltum, 
from  Avhich  it  seems  to  have  obtained  its  Perfect.  In  compounds  the  forms  of  the  Fourth 
Conj.  prevail,  especially  in  the  sense  of  to  call,  call  forth. 

1  For  convenience  of  reference,  a  General  List  of  all  verbs  involving  irregularities 
will  be  found  on  page  383. 

The  Present  Stem  adds  e  ;  see  251,  5.    For  phonetic  changes,  see  33-36. 

Participle  census  and  censltus.—PercenseO  wants  Supine :  recenseO  has  recensum 
and  recensltum. 

In  most  compounds  the  Supine  is  rare. 

Poetic,  fulgo,  fulgere,  etc. 

The  stem  of  haereo  is  haes.    The  Present  adds  e  and  changes  8  to  r  between  two 
vowels.    In  haesl  and  haesum,  8  standing  for  ss  or  st  is  not  changed. 
7  In  compounds  sometimes  mulctum. 


126 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


266.  Principal  Parts  in — eO,  ere,  I,  turn. 

WITH  LENGTHENED  STEM-VOWEL. 


caveo 

cavere             cavl                          cautum, 

to  beware. 

faveo 

favere              favl                          fautum, 

to  favor. 

foveo 

fovere              fovi                           fotum, 

to  cherish. 

moveo 

movere             movi                         motum, 

to  move. 

paveo 

pavere              pavi 

to  fear. 

voveo 

vovere             VOYI                         votum, 

to  vow. 

267. 

Principal  Parts  in  —  eo,  ere,  I,  sum. 

1.   WlTH   REDUPLICATION.1 

mordeo 

mordere           momordl                   morsum, 

to  bite. 

pendeo 

pendere           pependi                    pensum, 

to  hang. 

spondeo 

spondere         spopondi                  sponsum, 

to.  promise* 

tondeo 

tondere            totondi                     tonsum, 

to  shear. 

2.  WITH  LENGTHENED  STEM-VOWEL. 

sedeo 

sedere              sed!                          sessum,* 

to  sit. 

video 

videre              vidi                           visum, 

to  see. 

3.  WITH  UNCHANGED  STEM. 

comveo 

-__               ______                      » 

to  wink  at. 

ferveo 

to  boil. 

langueo 

lan^ucrc          lan'Y'ui 

to  be  languid. 

liqueo 

to  be  liquid. 

prandeo 

prandere          prandi                       pransum,4 

to  dine. 

strideo 

stridere            stridi 

to  creak. 

268. 

DEPONENT  VERBS. 

1.  Regular. 

Hceor 

licer!                       licitus  sum, 

to  bid. 

rnereor 

merer!                    meritus  sum, 

to  deserve. 

polliceor 

pollicerl                 pollicitus  sum, 

to  promise. 

tueor 

tueri                     i  tuitus  sum'  \ 
(  tutus  sum,  j 

to  protect. 

vereor 

vereri                     veritus  sum, 

to  fear. 

2.  Irregular. 

fateor 

faterl                      fassus  sum,5 

to  confess. 

misereor 

misereri               \  miseritus  sum,  ) 
(  misertus  sum,  ) 

10  cui  e. 
to  pity. 

reor 

reri                          ratus  sum, 

to  think. 

1  For  reduplication  in  compounds,  see  355, 1.,  4. 

2  So  circumseded  and  superseded.    Other  compounds  thus :  assidev,  ere, 

;  but  dissided,  praesidefi,  and  resided,  want  Supine. 

3  Observe  that  the  supine  stem  is  wanting  in  most  of  these  verbs. 

4  Participle,  pransus,  in  an  active  sense,  having  dined. 

5  Coiifiteo)\  <-ri,  confessus :  BO  profiteer. 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


127 


3.  Semi-Deponent — Deponent  in  the  Perfect. 

audeo  audere  ausus  sum,  to  dare. 

gaudeo  gaudere  gavisus  sum,  to  rejoice. 

soleo  solere  solitus  sum,  to  be  accustomed. 

THIRD   CONJUGATION. 

NOTE.— This  conjugation  contains  the  primitive  verbs  of  the  language;  see  335. 

CLASS  I. — STEM  IN  A  CONSONANT  :  PERFECT  IN  si  OR  I. 

269.  Principal  Parts  in — 0  (or  io),  ere,  si,  turn. 
These  are  the  regular  endings  in  verbs  whose  stems  end  in  a 
consonant.     The  following  are  examples  : l 


carpo 

carpere 

carpsl 

carptum,2 

to  pluck. 

cingo 

cingere 

cinxl  (gsl) 

cinctum, 

to  gird. 

dico 

dlcere 

dixi 

dictum, 

to  say.   • 

duco 

ducere 

duxi 

ductum, 

to  lead. 

exstinguo 

exstinguere 

exstinxl 

exstinctum,3 

to  extinguish. 

gero 

gerere 

gessi 

gestum, 

to  carry. 

nubo 

nubere 

nupsi 

nuptum, 

to  marry. 

rego 

regere 

rexl 

rectum,8 

to  rule. 

sumo 

siimere 

sumps! 

sumptum, 

to  take. 

traho 

trahere 

traxl 

tractum, 

to  draw. 

uro 

urere 

ussl 

ustum, 

to  burn. 

veho 

vehere 

vexi 

vectum, 

to  carry. 

vivo 

vivere 

V1X1 

vlctum, 

to  live. 

270.  Principal  Parts  in — 0  (or  io),  ere,  si,  sum.1 


cedo 

cedere 

cessi 

cessum, 

to  yield. 

claudo 

claudere 

clausi 

clausum,4 

to  close. 

divido 

dividere 

divisl 

divisum, 

to  divide. 

evado 

evadere 

evasl 

evasum,5 

to  evade. 

figo 

flgere 

fix! 

fixum, 

to  fasten. 

flecto 

flectere 

flexi 

flexum, 

to  bend. 

frendo 

frendere 



j  fresum,    ) 
j  fressum,  j 

to  gnash. 

laedo 

laedere 

laesl 

laesum,4 

to  hurt. 

ludo 

ludere 

lusi 

lusum, 

to  play. 

mitto 

mittere 

mlsi 

missum, 

to  send. 

mergo 

mergere 

mersi 

mersum, 

to  dip. 

necto 

nectere 

(  nexl      ) 
j  nexui  6  ) 

nexum, 

to  bind. 

pecto 

pectere 

pex! 

pexum, 

to  comb. 

1  For  Phonetic  Changes,  see  30-36. 

2  The  stem-vowel  is  often  changed  in  compounds:  carpo,  de-cerpO;  regQ,  dl-rigo; 
for  this  change,  see  344,  4;  also  221. 

3  So  other  compounds  of  stinguO  (rare) :  dtstinguO,  etc. 

4  Compounds  ofclaudo  have  u  for  au,  con-cludo;  those  of  laedd,  I  for  ae,  il-tidd; 
those  ofplaudo  generally  o  for  au,  ex-plodo ;  those  of  quatid,  cu  for  qua,  con-cutiO. 

6  So  other  compounds  ofvddO.  6  Compounds  take  this  form  in  the  Perfect 


128 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


plecto 

plectere 

plexi 

plexum, 

to  plait. 

plaudS 

plaudere 

plausl 

plausum,1 

to  applaud. 

premo 

premere 

pressl  * 

pressum, 

to  press. 

quatio 

quatere 

quassi  * 

quassum,1 

to  shake. 

spargo 

spargere 

sparsi 

sparsum, 

to  scatter. 

rado 

radere 

rasl 

rasum, 

to  shave. 

rods 

rodere 

rosl 

rosum, 

to  gnaw. 

tergS 

tergere 

tersi 

tersum,8 

to  wipe  off. 

trudo 

trudere 

trusl 

trusum, 

to  thrust. 

271. 

Principal  Parts 

in  —  0  (or  io), 

ere,  I,  turn. 

1. 

WITH  REDUPLICATION. 

abdo 

abdere 

abdidl 

abditum,4 

to  hide. 

canS 

canere 

cecinl 

cantum,5 

to  sing. 

credo 

credere 

credidl 

creditum,6 

to  believe. 

H  i  H  i  nT 

UloLO 

pango 

iiis  cere 
pangere 

(J.1U1C1 

pepigi 

pactum, 

io  leai  n. 
to  bargain. 

pangS 

pangere 

j  panxl 

panctum,7  ^ 
pactum,     f 

to  fix  in. 

pario 

parere 

peperi 

partum,8 

to  bring  forth 

sisto 

sistere 

stiti 

statum,9 

to  place. 

tango 

tangere 

tetigi 

tactum,10 

to  touch. 

tends 

tendere 

tetendi 

(  tentum,10  ) 

to  stretch. 

(  tensum,    j 

tolls 

tollere 

sustuli 

sublatum,11 

to  raise. 

vendo 

vendere 

vendidi 

venditum,6 

to  sell. 

pungo 

pungere 

pupugT 

punctum,12 

to  prick. 

2.  WITH 

LENGTHENED 

STEM-YOWEL. 

ago 

agere 

egi 

actum,13 

to  drive. 

capiS 

capere 

cepi 

captum,14 

to  take. 

emo 

emere 

emi 

emptum,18 

to  buy. 

1  See  page  127,  foot-note  4. 
a  Bee  34, 1,  note;  35,3,2). 

3  Also  terged,  tergere,  etc. ;  compounds  take  this  form ;  see  265. 

4  So  all  compounds  of  do  except  those  of  Conjugation  I.;  see  259,  note  1. 

6  ConcinG,  ere,  concinui, ;  so  occind  and  praecino ;  other  compounds  want 

Perfect  and  Supine. 

•  Explained  as  a  compound  of  do  ;  see  abdo. 

7  CompingO,  ere,  compegl,  compactum;  BO  also  impingo.    Depango  wants  Perfect; 
repango,  Perfect  and  Supine. 

8  Participle,  pariturus :  compounds  are  of  Conjugation  IV. 

9  Compounds  thus :  cdnsisto,  ere,  constitl,  constitum  ;  but  circumsteti  also  occurs. 

10  Compounds  drop  the  reduplication. 

11  Attollo  and  extoTti  want  Perfect  and  Supine. 

12  Compounds  thus :  compungO,  ere,  compunxi,  compunctum. 

13  So  circumago  and  per  ago;  satago  wants  Perfect  and  Supine.    Other  compounds 
change  a  into  i  in  the  Present:  abigo,  ere,  abegi,  aodctum;  but  coigd  becomes  cogO, 
ere,  coegl,  coactum,  and  deigO,  degO,  ere,  degi,  without  Supine.    ProdigO  wants  Supine, 
and  ambigo,  Perfect  and  Supine. 

14  So  antecapid;  other  compounds  thus  :  accipio,  ere,  acctpi,  acceptum. 
16  So  coemo  ;  other  compounds  thus  :  adimo,  ere,  ademl,  ademptum. 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


129 


facio 

facere 

fed 

factum,1 

to  make. 

fugio 

fugere 

fugl 

fugitum, 

to  flee. 

jacio 

jacere 

jeci 

jactum,2 

to  throw. 

frangS 

frangere 

fregi 

fractum,3 

to  break. 

lego 

legere 

leg! 

lectum,4 

to  read. 

linquo 

linquere 

Hqui 

5 

to  leave. 

scauo 
vinco 

facauere 
vincere 

bCdUl 
V1C1 

victum, 

io  dC/  aicii, 
to  conquer. 

rumpS 

rumpere 

rupl 

ruptum, 

to  burst. 

272. 

Principal  Parts 

in  —  0  (or  io), 

ere,  I,  sum.0 

1. 

WITH  KEDTJPLICATION. 

cado 

cadere 

cecidi 

casum,7 

to  fall. 

caedo 

caedere 

cecld! 

caesum,8 

to  cut. 

curro 

currere 

cucurri 

cursum,9 

to  run. 

fallo 

fallere 

fefelli 

falsum,10 

to  deceive. 

parco 

parcere 

pepercl  (pars!) 

parsum,11 

to  spare. 

pello 

pellere 

pepull 

pulsum,12 

to  drive. 

pendo 

pendere 

pependl 

pensum,12 

to  weigh. 

poscS 

poscere 

poposc! 

13 

to  demand. 

tundo 

tundere 

tutudi 

j  tunsum,12   ) 
(  tusum,        ) 

to  beat. 

2.  WITH 

LENGTHENED  STEM-YOWEL. 

edS 

edere 

edi 

esum, 

to  eat. 

fodiS 

fodere 

fodi 

fossum, 

to  dig. 

fundo 

fundere 

fud! 

fusum, 

to  pour. 

3.  WITH  UNCHANGED  STEM. 

accendS 

accendere 

accendi 

accensum,14 

to  kindle. 

cuds 

cudere 

cudi 

cusum, 

to  forge. 

defends 

defendere 

defend! 

defensum,14 

to  defend. 

I  Passive  irregular:  fio,  fieri,  factus  sum;  see  294.    So  satisfacio  and  compounds 
of  facio  with  verbs ;  but  compounds  with  prepositions  thus :  confieio,  conjficere,  cdnfecl, 
confectum  ;  with  regular  Passive,  conficior,  conficl,  confectits  sum. 

a  Superjacio  has  jactum  or  jectum  in  Supine :  compounds  with  monosyllabic  prepo- 
sitions thus :  abicio,  abicere,  dbjecl,  dbjectum  ;  see  page  20,  foot-note  1. 

3  Compounds  thus :  confringd,  ere,  confregi,  confrdctum. 

4  So  compounds,  except  (1)  colligO,  ere,  collegl,  collectum ;  so  deligO,  eligo,  seligO — (2) 
dlligd,  ere,  dilexi,  dllectum  ;  so  intellego,  neglego,  though  neglegl  occurs  in  the  Perfect. 

6  Compounds  with  Supine :  relinquO,  ere,  reliqul,  relictum. 

6  For  Phonetic  Changes,  see  30-36. 

7  Incido,  ere,  incidl,  incdsum  ;  so  occido  and  recido  ;  other  compounds  want  Supine. 

8  Compounds  thus:  concido,  ere,  concldl,  conclsum. 

9  Excurro  and  praecurro  generally  retain  the  reduplication :  excucurri,  praecucwr* 
ri  ;  other  compounds  generally  drop  it. 

10  Refello,  ere,  refelll,  without  Supine. 

II  Compared,  ere,  comparsl,  compartum,  also  with  e  for  a:  compercO^  ere,  etc, 
Jmparcd  and  reparco  want  Perfect  and  Supine. 

12  Compounds  drop  reduplication,  255, 1.,  4. 

13  Compounds  retain  reduplication,  255, 1.,  4. 

14  So  other  compounds  of  the  obsolete  candO  f 

7 


130 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


findo              findere               fidl  (findl)       fissum, 

to  part. 

ico                  icere                   ici 

ictum, 

to  strike. 

mando            mandere             mandi 

mansum, 

to  chew. 

pando             pandere              pandl 

1  pSnsum'  \ 

to  open. 

- 

(  pinsitum,    ) 

pmso  (piso)    plnsere            j  plnsul 

•<  plstum,       v 

to  pound. 

'   r 

/  pinsum,       \ 

prehendo        prehendere,        prehendi          prehensumi1        to  grasp. 

scando            scandere             scandi 

scansum, 

to  climb. 

scindo             scindere              scid! 

scissum, 

to  rend. 

solvo              solvere               solvi 

solutum,9 

to  loose. 

vello               vellere                velli  (vulsi)     vulsum, 

to  pluck. 

verro              verrere               verri 

versum, 

to  brush. 

verto               vertere               verti 

versum,3 

to  turn. 

vlso                vlsere                 visi 

visum, 

to  visit. 

volvo              volvere               volvi 

volutum, 

to  roll. 

NOTE  1.  —  Some  verbs  with  the  Perfect  in  si  or  I  want  the  Supine  : 

tngO,  ere,  anxi,                   to  squeeze. 

metuo,  ere,  i, 

to  fear. 

annuo,  ere,  I,                      to  assent. 

pluo,  ere,  I,  or  pluvl, 

to  rain. 

batu6,  ere,  I,                       to  beat. 

psallo,  ere,  I, 

to  play  the  harp. 

bibO,  ere,  I,                         to  drink. 

sido,  ere,  i,4 

to  sit  down. 

congruO,  ere,  i,                   to  agree. 

m'ngO.  ere,  ninxl, 

to  snow. 

ingruo,  ere,  I,                     to  assail. 

strldo,  ere,  i, 

to  creak. 

lambO,  ere,  i,                      to  lick. 

sternuo,  ere,  I, 

to  sneeze. 

NOTE  2.  —  Some  verbs  want  both  Perfect  and  Supine  : 

clango,                                to  clang. 

hisco, 

to  gape. 

claudo,                              to  be  lame. 

vad6, 

to  ffo.& 

fatisco,                               to  gape. 

temno, 

to  despise.* 

glisco,                                to  grow. 

vergo, 

to  incline. 

CLASS  II. — STEM  IN  A  CONSONANT  :  PEKFECT  IN  ui. 

273.  Principal  Parts  in — 0  (or  i5),  ere,  ui,  itum. 
accumbo         accumbere         accubui  accubitum,7         to  recline. 

alo  alere  alui 


depso 

depsere 

depsul 

\  uepsiLuiu,  i 

to  knead. 

elicio 

elicere 

elicul 

elicitum,8 

to  elicit. 

fremo 

fremere 

fremul 

fremitum, 

to  rage. 

gemo 

gemere 

gemui 

gemitum, 

to  groan. 

gigno 

gignere 

genul 

genitum, 

to  beget. 

molo 

molere 

molui 

molitum, 

to  grind. 

1  Often  written  prendo,  prendere,  etc. 

2  F  is  here  changed  to  its  corresponding  vowel  u :  solutum  for  solvtum. 

3  Compounds  of  de,  prae,  re,  are  generally  deponent  in  the  Present,  Imperfect,  and 
Future. 

4  Perfect  and  Supine  generally  supplied  from  seded;  hence  sedl,  tessum.    So  in  com 
pounds. 

s  SeeevadO,  370. 

*  But  contemnd,  ere,  contempei,  contemptum. 

7  So  other  compounds  ofcumbo,  cubd;  see  cubo,  258. 

*  Other  compounds  of  lacio  thus  :  allicio,  allicere,  allexl,  allectum. 


THIRD   CONJUGATION.  131 

{II        C  pmsitum,  } 
P     _         •]  pistum,     V     to  crush. 
(  pmsum,     ) 

pono  ponere  posui  positum,          to  place. 

strepo  strepere  strepui         strepitum,       to  make  a  noise. 

vomo  vomere  vomul  vomitum,         to  vomit. 

NOTE.  —  CompescO,  'to  restrain';  excello,1  'to  excel';  fu/rd,  'to  rage1;  sterto,  'to 
snore  '  ;  and  tremO,  '  to  tremble,'  have  the  Perfect  in  m,  but  want  the  Supine. 

274.  Principal  Parts  in  —  0  (or  io),  ere,  ul,  turn. 

colo  colere  colul  cultum,  to  cultivate. 

consulo  consulere  consulu!  consultum,  to  consult. 

occulo  occulere  occulul  occultum,  to  hide. 

rapio  rapere  rapui  raptum,2  to  snatch. 

sero  serere  serui  sertum,  to  connect. 

texo  texere  texul  textum,  to  weave. 

275.  Principal  Parts  in  —  0,  ere,  sui,  sum. 

meto  metere  messul  3       messum,         to  reap. 

necto  nectere  •!  ^^j  [       nexum,  to  bind. 


CLASS  III.—  STEM  n*  A  VOWEL  :  PERFECT  itf  vi  on  I. 

276.  The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  avi  from  a  stem  in  a  : 
pasco4  pascere  pavi  pastum,  to  feed. 

sterno  stemere  stravi  stratum,          to  strew. 

veterasco       veterascere       veteravl       -  to  grow  old. 

277.  The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  evi  from  a  stem  in  e  : 
abolesco         abolescere         abolevi         abolitum,5       to  disappear. 
cerno  cernere  crevl  cretum,  to  decide. 

cresco  crescere  crevl  cretum,6  to  grow. 

quiesco  quiescere  quievl  quietum,  to  rest. 

sperno  spernere  sprevi  spretum,  to  spurn. 

suesco  suescere  suevi  suetum,  to  become  accustomed. 

NOTE.—  Sero,  serere,  sevl,  satum,7  to  sow. 

278.  The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  ivi  from  a  stem  in  I  : 
arcesso          arcessere  arcessivl      arcessitum,     to  call  for. 
capesso          capessere          capessivi      capessitum,    to  lay  hold  of. 
cupio             cupere              cuplvl          cupltum,         to  desire. 

facesso          facessere       •!  f^cessl71  \    ^acessltum>     io  ma^e- 

1  Other  compounds  of  cello  want  the  Perfect  and  Supine,  except  percello,  percellere, 
gercull,  perculsum. 

Compounds  thus  :  corripio,  corripere,  corripul,  correptum. 

The  Perfect  in  sul  seems  to  be  a  double  formation,  6i  enlarged  to  sui. 

The  stem  ofpdsco  is  pd,  pas;  the  Present  Stem  adds  see;  see  251,  2. 

So  inolescd;  but  adolescO  has  Supine  adultum;  exotescd,  exoletum; 
9b8  letum. 

IncrescO  and  succrescO  want  the  Supine. 

Compounds  thus  :  consero,  conserere,  consem,  consitum, 


132 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


incesso 

lacesso 
lino 
nosco 
peto 
quaere 
rudo 
sapio 
sino 
tero 

incessere 

lacessere 
linere 
noscere 
petere 
quaerere 
rudere 
sapere 
sinere 
terere 

(  incessivi  ) 
(  incessi      j 
lacessiv! 
Hvi,  lev! 
novl 
petivl 
quaesivi 
rudlvi 
sapivi,  sapu! 
siv! 
trlvi 

to  attack. 

to  provoke, 
to  smear, 
to  know, 
to  ask. 
to  seek, 
to  bray, 
to  taste, 
to  permit, 
to  rub. 

lacessitum, 
litum, 
notum,1 
petitum, 
quaesitum,2 
rudrtum, 

situm, 
tritum, 

279.  Principal  Parts  in  —  0,  ere,  I,  turn. 

These  are  the  regular  endings  in  verbs  with  u-stems.     The  following 
are  examples  : 

acul  acutum, 

argui  argutum, 

imbui  imbutum, 

minui  minutum, 

rui  rutum, 

statul  statutum, 

tribul  tributum, 
J3oTE.—J?lud  and  struo  have  the  Perfect  in  xi. 

fluo  fluere  flux!3  fluxum, 

struo  struere  struxi  3  struetum, 


acuo 

arguo 

imbuo 

minuo 

ruo 

statuo 

tribuo 


acuere 

arguere 

imbuere 

minuere 

ruere 

statuere 

tribuere 


to  sharpen. 
to  convict. 
to  imbue. 
to  diminish. 
to  fall. 
to  place. 
to  impart. 

to  flow. 
to  build. 


INCEPTIVES. 

280.  Inceptives  end  in  scp,  and  denote  the  beginning  of 
an  action. 

NOTE. — When  formed  from  verbs,  they  are  called  Verbal  Inceptives^  and 
when  formed  from  nouns  or  adjectives,  Denominative  Inceptives. 

281.  Most  VERBAL  INCEPTIVES  want  the  Supine,  but  take  the  Perfect 
of  their  primitives : 

acesco 

aresco 

calesco 

floresco 

tepesco 

viresco 


(aced} 

(ared) 

(caleo) 

(fldred) 

(teped) 

(vireo) 


acescere 

arescere 

calescere 

florescere 

tepescere 

virescere 


acul 

arul 

calu! 

florul 

tepul 

virul 


to  become  sour, 
to  become  dry. 
to  become  warm, 
to  begin  to  bloom, 
to  become  warm, 
to  become  green. 


NOTE. — The  following  take  the  Perfect  and  Supine  of  their  primitives : 


concuplscd 

(co/i,  cupio) 

ere 

concuplvl 

concupitum, 

to  desire. 

convalesce 

(con,  valed) 

ere 

convalul 

convalitum, 

to  grow  strong. 

exardesco 

(ecr,  drdeti) 

ere 

exarsi 

exarsum, 

to  burn. 

inveterasco 

(inveterO) 

ere 

inveteravi 

inveteratum, 

to  grow  old. 

obdormisco 

(ob,  dormio) 

ere 

obdormlvl 

obdormitum, 

to  fall  asleep. 

revivisco 

(re,  vivo) 

ere 

revixi 

revTctum, 

to  revive. 

BC1SCO 

(scify 

ere 

sclvl 

scltum, 

to  enact. 

1  So  ignosco ;  dgnoscO  and  cognosce  have  Hum  in  Supine,  dgnitum ;  dignoscO  and 
tnternoscd  want  Supine. 

3  Compounds  thus  :  acquire,  ere,  acqulstvl,  acqu'isitum. 

3  Yorjlng-81,  Strug-si,  formed  not  from  w-stems,  but  from  consonant-stems. 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


133 


282.  Most  DENOMINATIVE  INCEPTIYES  want  both  Perfect  and  Supine : 

ditesco        (dives),        to  qrow  rich. 
dulcesco      tdnlcujj      to  become  sweet. 
grandesco  (grandis],  to  grow  large. 


mitese-D     (mltis),     to  grow  mild. 
mollesco  (mollis),  to  qrow  soft. 
puerasco  (puer),     to  "become  a  boy. 


NOTE. — The  following  have  the  Perfect  in  111 : 


283.  DEPONENT  VERBS. 


amplector 

apiscor 

comminiscor 

expergiscor 

fatiscor 

fruor 

fungor 

gradior 

Irascor 

labor 

liquor 

loquor 

morior 

nanciscor 

nascor 

mtor 

obllviscor 

paciscor 

patior 

proficiscor 

queror 

reminiscor 

ringor 

sequor 

ulciscor 

utor 

vescor 


fido 


I 

I 
T 
I 
I3 


(iri,  rare) 


ere              crebruT, 
ere              durui, 

to  become  frequent, 
to  became  hard. 

ere              innotui, 

to  become  known. 

ere              macrui, 

to  become  lean. 

ere               maturul, 

to  ripen. 

ere              obmutui, 

to  grow  dumb. 

ere              recrudul, 
ere              vilui, 

to  bleed  afresh, 
to  become  worthless. 

amplexus  sum, 

to  embrace. 

aptus  sum,1 

to  obtain. 

commentus  sum,2 

to  devise. 

experrectus  sum, 

to  awake. 

to  gape, 

j  fructus  sum,  ) 

1  fruitus  sum,  ) 

to  enjoy. 

functus  sum, 

to  perform. 

gressus  sum,4 

to  walk. 

to  be  angry. 

lapsus  sum, 

to  fall. 

locutus  sum, 

10  Tncii. 
to  speak. 

mortuus  sum,5 

to  die. 

nactus  (nanctus)  sum, 

to  obtain. 

natus  sum,5 

to  be  born. 

{nisus  sum,  ) 
mxus  sum,  j 

to  strive. 

oblitus  sum, 

to  forget. 

pactus  sum, 

to  bargain. 

passus  sum, 

to  suffer. 

profectus  sum, 

to  set  out. 

questus  sum, 

to  complain. 

rictus  sum, 

to  growl. 

secutus  sum, 

to  follow. 

ultus  sum, 

to  avenge. 

usus  sum, 

to  use. 

to  eat. 

Semi-Deponent — Deponent  in  the  Perfect. 
fldere  f Isus  sum, 


to  trust. 


1  Adipiscor,  f,  adeptus  sum  ;  so  indipiscor. 

3  Com-miniscor  is  compounded  of  con,  and  the  obsolete  miniscor ;  re-miniscor 
wants  the  Perfect. 

3  De-fetiscor,  ?,  de-fesms  sum. 

4  Compounds  thus :  aggredior,  7,  aggressus  sum. 

c  Morior  has  future  participle  moriturus;  nuscor,  ndsciturus. 


134:  CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 

FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 

CLASS  L— STEM  IK  I :  PERFECT  IK  vi. 

284.  Principal  Parts  in — io,  ire,  ivi,  itum. 
The  following  are  examples : 

finio  inure  fimvi  finitum,  to  finish. 

lenio  lenlre  lenivl  lemtum,  to  alleviate. 

munio  munire  munlvl  munltum,  to  fortify. 

punio  punlre  punlvl  pumtum,  to  punish. 

scio  sclre  sciv!  scitum,  to  know. 

sepelio  sepelire  sepelivl  sepultum,1  to  bury. 

sitio  sitlre  sitlvl to  thirst. 

vagio  vaglre  vagivl  to  cry. 

NOTE  1. —  Vis  often  dropped  in  the  Perfect :  audii  for  audivi ;  see  235, 1. 

NOTE  2. — Desideratives  (338,  III.) — except  'esurid,  ire, ,  Uum ;  nup- 

turio,  Ire,  ivl,  and  parturid^  ire,  ivi — want  both  Perfect  and  Supine.  Also  a 
few  others : 


balbutio,  to  stammer. 
caecutio,  to  be  blind. 
ferio,  to  strike. 


ferocio,       to  bejlerce. 
gannio,        to  bark. 
ineptio,       to  trifle,. 


sagiO,          to  be  wise. 
superbio,     to  be  proud. 
tussio,         to  cough. 


CLASS  II. — STEM  IN  c,  1,  OR  r:  PERFECT  IN  ul. 

285.  Principal  Parts  in — io,  ire,  ui,  turn. 

amicio  amicire  amicul  (xl)  amictum,  to  clothe. 

aperio  aperlre  aperui  apertum,  to  open. 

operio  operire  operul  opertum,  to  cover. 

salio  salire  salui  (il)  (saltum),8  to  leap. 

CLASS  III. — STEM  IN  A  CONSONANT  :  PERFECT  IN  si  OR  l. 

286.  Principal  Parts  in — io,  ire,  si,  turn. 


farcio 

farcire 

fars! 

j  fartum,8  ) 
(  farctum,  ) 

to  stuff. 

fulcio 

fulcire 

fulsi 

fultum, 

to  prop. 

haurio4 

haurire 

hausi 

haustum,  hausum, 

to  draw. 

saepio 

saeplre 

saepsl 

saeptum, 

to  hedge  in. 

sancio 

sanclre 

sanxl 

j  sancltum,  ) 
(  sanctum,  y 

to  ratify. 

sarcio 

sarcire 

sarsi 

sartum, 

to  patch. 

vincio 

vincire 

vinxi 

vinctum, 

to  bind. 

1  Supine  irregular. 

2  Compounds  thus :  dexilid',  ire,  ul  (IT),  (desultum). 

3  Compounds  thus :  cdnferciO,  Ire,  confersi,  cdnfertum. 

4  The  stem  of  haurio  is  haus.    The  Present  adds  I  and  changes  «  to  r  between  two 
Towels.    In  hausi  and  hausum,  8  standing  for  ss  or  st  is  not  changed. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


135 


287.  Principal  Parts  in — io,  ire,  si,  sum. 


raucio 
eentio 


raucire 
sentire 


rausi 
sens! 


rausum, 
sensum. 


NOTE.— The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  I : 


comperio 

reperio 

venio 


eomperlre 

reperire 

venire 


comperl 

reperl 

veni1 


compertum, 

repertum, 

ventum, 


288.  DEPONENT  VERBS. 


1.  Regular. 

blandior  m  blanditus  sum, 

largior  Iri  largitus  sum, 

mentior  Iri  mentltus  sum, 

molior  m  molitus  sum, 

partior  Iri  partltus  sum, 

potior 2  M  potitus  sum, 

sortior  Iri  sortltus  sum, 

2.  Irregular. 

assentior3  irl  assensus  sum, 

experior  M  expertus  sum, 

metier  Iri  mensus  sum, 

ODDerior  m  \  oppertus  sum, 

\  opperltus  sum,  ; 

ordior  Iri  orsus  sum, 

orior  Iri  ortus  sum,4 


to  be  hoarse, 
to  feel. 


to  learn, 
to  find, 
to  come. 


to  flatter, 
to  bestow, 
to  lie. 
to  strive, 
to  divide, 
to  obtain, 
to  draw  lots. 


to  assent. 

to  try. 

to  measure. 

to  await. 

to  begin, 
to  rise. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

289.  A  few  verbs  which,  have  special  irregularities  are 
called  by  way  of  preeminence  Irregular  or  Anomalous 
Verbs.    They  are  sum,  edd,  fero,  volo,  fid,  eo,  queo,  and 
their  compounds. 

290.  Sum,  'I  am,'  and  its  compounds. 

I.  The  conjugation  of  sum  has  been  already  given  (204) ;  its  numerous 
compounds — absumf  adsum,  desum,  praesum*  etc. — except  possum  and  pro- 
sum,  are  conjugated  in  the  same  way. 

1  With  lengthened  stem- vowel. 

2  In  the  Present  Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  forms  of  Conjugation  III.  occur. 

3  Compounded  of  ad  and  sentio  ;  see  287. 

4  Participle,  oriturus. — Present  Indicative,  Conjugation  III.,  oreris,  oritur.    Imper- 
fect Subjunctive,  orlrer  or  orerer.— So  compounds,  but  adorior  follows  Conjugation  IV. 

6  Absum  and  praesum,  like  possum,  have  Present  Participles,  absent  and  praesens, 
used  as  adjectives,  absent,  present. 


136  IRREGULAR    VERBS. 

II.  Possum,  posse,  potui,  to  le  able. 


SINGULAR. 

Pres.  possum,  potes,  potest  ;  possumus,  potestis,  possunt. 

Imp.   poteram;1  poteramus. 

Put.    potero  ;  poterimus. 

Perf.  potui;  potuimus. 

Plup.  potueram  ;  potuerSmus. 

F.  P.  potuero  ;  potuerimus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.  possim,  possTs,  possit;  posslmus,  possitis,  possint. 

Imp.  possem  ;  possemus. 

Perf.  potuerim;  potuerimus. 

Plup.  potuissem  ;  potuissemus. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  posse.  Pres.  potens  (as  an  adjective). 

Perf.  potuisse. 

NOTE  I.—  Possum  is  compounded  of  potis,  'able,'  and  sum,  'to  be.1    The  parts  aro 
sometimes  separated,  and  then  potis  is  indeclinable  :  potis  sum,  potte  sumus,  etc. 
NOTE  2.  —  In  possum  observe  — 

1)  That  potis  drops  is,  and  that  t  is  assimilated  before  s:  possum  forpotsum. 

2)  That  /of  the  simple  is  dropped  after  t:  potui  forpotful. 

8)  That  the  Infinitive  posse  and  Subjunctive  possem  are  shortened  forms  for  potesse 
and  potessem. 

NOTE  3.—  For  OLD  AND  RAKE  FORMS,  see  304,  2. 

III.  Prosum,  '  I  profit,'  is  compounded  of  pro,  prod,  '  for/  and  sum,  l  to 
be.'  It  retains  d  when  the  simple  verb  begins  with  e  :  prosum,  prodes, 
pi'odcst,  etc.  Otherwise  it  is  conjugated  like  sum. 

291.  Edo,  edere,  edi,  esum,  to  eat. 

This  verb  is  sometimes  regular,  and  sometimes  takes  forms  similar, 
except  in  quantity,8  to  those  of  sum  which  begin  in  es.  Thus  — 


INDICATIVE. 

Pres. 

(edo, 

edis, 
es,» 

edit; 
est; 

edimus, 

editis, 
estis. 

edunt. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Imp. 

j  ederem, 
(  essem, 

ederes, 

esses, 

ederet  ; 

esset  ; 

ederemus, 
essemus, 

ederetis, 
essetis, 

ederent. 
essent. 

1  Inflected  regularly  through  the  different  persons :  poteram,  poterds,  poterat,  etc. 
So  also  in  the  other  tenses :  potui,  potulsti,  etc. 

2  These  forms  have  e  long  before  «,  while  the  corresponding  forms  of  sum  have  e  short. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


137 


Pres. 


Put. 


jede; 
Us;1 
(  edito ; 
\  esto ; 


Pres. 


IMPERATIVE. 
edite. 
este. 
edit5te, 
estote. 

INFINITIVE. 

edere. 


edunto. 


esse. 


NOTE  1.— In  the  PASSIVE,  estur  for  editur  and  essetur  for  ederetur  also  occur. 

NOTE  2.— FOBMS  IN  IM  for  am  occur  in  the  Present  Subjunctive :  edim,  edi8>  edit, 
etc.,  for  edam,  edds,  edat,  etc. 

NOTE  3. — COMPOUNDS  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  comedo  has  in  the  Su 
pine  comesum  or  comestum. 


292.  Fero, 


ferre, 


tuli, 


latum, 


to  lear. 


ACTIVE    VOICE. 


SINGULAR.     INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  fero,  fers,  fert; 
Imp.  ferebam;3 
Fut.    f eram ; 
Per/,  tuli; 
Plup.  tuleram ; 
F.  P.  tulero; 


PLURAL. 

ferimus,  fertis,8  ferunt. 

ferebamus. 

feremus. 

tulimus. 

tuleramus. 

tulerimus. 


Pres.  feram; 

feramus. 

Imp.   ferrem; 

ferremus.4 

Perf.  tulerim; 

tulerimus. 

Plup.  tulissem  ; 

tulissemus. 

Pres.  fer;6 

IMPERATIVE.      ,.  , 

lerte. 

Fut.    ferto, 

fertote, 

f  erto  ; 

ferunto. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  ferre.4 

Pres.  fer6ns. 

Perf.  tulisse. 

Fut.    laturus  eese. 

Fut.  laturus. 

1  See  page  136,  foot-note  2. 

2  F&r-s,  fer-t,  fer-tis,  like  es-t,  es-tis,  dispense  with  the  usual  thematic  vowel  i. 
With  such  vowel  the  forms  would  be  feris,  ferit,  feritis. 

s  Inflect  the  several  tenses  in  full :  ferebam,  ferebds,  etc. 

4  Ferrem^  etc.,  forfererem,  etc.;  ferre  forferere  (e  dropped). 

•  Fer  for/«r«/  fwto>  ferto,  fertdte,  ferris,  fertitr,  without  thematic  rowel. 


138 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


GERUND. 

Gen.  ferendl, 

Dot.  ferendo, 

Ace.  ferendum, 

Abl.  ferendo. 


SUPINE. 


Ace.  latum, 
Abl.  latu. 


PASSIVE  VOICE, 
ferri,  latus  sum, 


feror, 


Pres.  feror,  ferris,  fertur;1 

Imp.   ferebar; 

Fut.    ferar; 

Perf.  latus  sum ; 

Plup.  latus  eram ; 

F.  P.  latus  ero ; 


to  "be  "borne. 


Pres.  ferar; 
Imp.   ferrer;1 
Perf.  latus  sim ; 
Plup.  latus  essem ; 

Pres.  ferre;1 

Fut.    fertor,1 

f  ertor ; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  ferri.1 
Perf.  latus  esse. 
Fut.    latum  iri. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


IMPERATIVE. 


PLURAL. 

ferimur,  ferimini,  feruntur. 

ferebamur. 

feremur. 

lati  sumus. 

lati  eramus. 

lati  erimus. 

feramur. 
ferremur. 
lati  slmus. 
lati  essemus. 

ferimini. 


feruntor. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Perf.  latus. 
Ger.    ferendus. 


1.  Fero  has  two  principal  irregularities : 

1)  Its  forms  are  derived  from  three  independent  stems,  seen  in  fero,  tuU^ 
Latum. 

2)  It  dispenses  with  the  thematic  vowel,  e  or  *,  before  r,  *,  and  t. 

2.  COMPOUNDS  of  f  ero  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  in  a  few  of 
them  the  preposition  suffers  a  euphonic  change : 


al> 

aufero 

auferre 

abstull 

ablatum 

ad- 

adfero 

adferre 

attull 

allatum 

con- 

confero 

conferre 

contull 

collatum 

dis- 

differo 

differre 

distull 

dllatum 

ex- 

effero 

efferre 

extull 

elatum 

in- 

Infero 

Inferre 

intull 

illatum 

ob- 

offero 

offerre 

obtull 

oblatum 

sub- 

suffero 

sufferre 

sustull 

sublatum 

1  Without  thematic  vowel. 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


139 


NOTE.— SustuU  and  su'bldtum  are  not  often  used  in  the  sense  of  sufferQ,  to  bear,  but 
they  supply  the  Perfect  and  Supine  of  tollo,  to  raise ;  see  371. 

293.  Volo,  velle,  volui,  to  le  willing. 

Nolo,  nolle,  nolui,  to  ~be  unwitting. 

Malo,  malle,  malui,  to  prefer. 


Pres.  volo, 
vis, 
vult; 
volumus, 
vultis, 
volunt. 

Imp.  volebam. 

Put.    volam. 

Perf.  volul. 

Plup.  volueram. 

F.  P.  voluero. 

Pres.  velim.1 
Imp.  vellem.2 
Perf.  voluerim. 
Plup.  voluissem. 


Pres.  velle. 
Perf.  voluisse. 

Pres.  volens. 


I 


INDICATIVE. 

nolo, 

non  vis, 

non  vult ; 

nolumus, 

non  vultis, 

nolunt. 

nolebam. 

nolam. 

nolui. 

nolueram. 

noluero. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

nolim. 
nollem. 
noluerim. 
noluissem. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  noli,         nolite. 
Fut.    nollto,      nolitote, 
nollto ;     nolunto. 

INFINITIVE. 

nolle, 
noluisse. 

PARTICIPLE. 

nolens. 


I 


malo, 

mavis, 

mavult ; 

malumus, 

mavultis, 

malunt. 

malebam. 

malam. 

malui. 

malueram. 

maluero. 

malim. 

mallem. 

maluerim. 

maluissem. 


malle. 
maluisse. 


NOTE  1. — The  stem  of  volo  is  vol,  with  variable  stem-vowel,  o,  e,  u. 

NOTE  2. — NOLO  is  compounded  of  rie  or  non  and  volo ;  MALO,  of  magis 
and  volo. 

NOTE  3. — RARE  FORMS. — (1)  Of  VOLO:  volt,  voltis,  for  vult,  vultis;  sis, 
sultis,  for  si  vis,  si  vultis  ;  vin1  for  visne.— (2)  Of  NOLO  :  nevis,  nevult  (nevolt\ 

1   Velim  is  inflected  like  sim,  and  vellem  like  essem. 

3  Vellem  and  velle  are  syncopated  forms  for  velerem,  velere;  e  Is  dropped  and  r 
assimilated:  velerem,  velrem,  vellem;  velere,  velre,  velle.  So  nollem  and  notte,  for 
nolerem  and  nolere;  mallem  and  malle,  for  mdlerem  and  mdlere. 


140 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


nevelle,  for  non  (rie)  uw,  non  (rie)  vult,  nolle. — (3)  Of  MALO" :  mavolo,  m&velim, 
mavellem,  for  maid,  malim,  mallem. 


294.  Flo,          fieri, 

factus  sum,          to  become,  le  made.1 

SINGULAR. 

INDICATIVE. 

PLURAL. 

Pres.  fio,  fis,  fit; 

fimus,  fitis,  fiunt. 

Imp.   fiebam; 

fiebamus. 

Fut.    flam  ; 

fiemus. 

Perf.  f  actus  sum  ; 

fact!  sumus. 

Plup.  f  actus  eram  ; 

fact!  eramus. 

F.  P.  f  actus  ero  ;    , 

factl  erimus. 

Pres.  flam; 

SUBJUNCTIVE.      fiamus 

Imp.   fierem  ; 

fieremus. 

Perf.  f  actus  sim  ; 

factl  slmus. 

Plup.  factus  essem 

;                                 factl  essemus. 

Pres.  fi; 

IMPERATIVE  . 

fite. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  fieri. 

Perf.  factus  esse. 

Perf.  factus. 

Fut.    f  actum  m. 

Ger.   faciendus. 

295.  Eo,           ire, 

Ivi,            itum,            to  go. 

Pres.  eo,  is,  it  ; 

INDICATIVE. 
Imus,  Itis,  eunt. 

Imp.  Ibam  ; 

IbSmus. 

Fut.    ibo; 

Ibimus. 

Perf.  Ivi; 

Ivimus. 

Plup.  Iveram  ; 

iveramus. 

F.  P.  ivero  ; 

iverimus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.  earn; 

eamus. 

Imp.  Irem  ; 

iremus. 

Perf.  Iverim  ; 

iverimus. 

Plup.  ivissem  ; 

ivissemus. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  I; 

Ite. 

Fut.    ito, 

Itote, 

ito; 

eunto. 

1  COMPOUITOB  of/10  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  conjit,  dejlt,  and  irtftt 
are  defective;  see  897,  III.,  2, 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS.  141 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  Ire.  Pres.  iens,          Gen.  euntis. 

Per/.  Ivisse. 

Fut.    iturus  esse.  Fut.    iturus. 

GERUND.  SUPINE. 

Gen.   eundl, 
Dat.    eundo, 

Ace.    eundum,  Ace.    itum, 

All.    eundo.  All.    itu. 

1.  Ed  is  a  verb  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation,  but  it  forms  the  Supine  with  a  short  vowel 
(itum),  and  is  irregular  in  several  parts  of  the  Present  System.    It  admits  contraction 
according  to  235 :  Islia  for  wlstis,  etc. 

2.  Eo,  as  an  intransitive  verb,  wants  the  Passive,  except  when  used  impersonally  in 
the  third  singular,  itur,  Ibdtur,  etc.  (301, 1),  but  m,  the  Passive  Infinitive,  occurs  as  an 
auxiliary  in  the  Future  Infinitive  Passive  of  the  regular  conjugations :  amdtum  m,  etc. 

8.  COMPOUNDS  of  eO  generally  shorten  Im  into  iL  VeneO  (venum  ed)  has  sometimes 
veniebam  for  venibam.  Many  compounds  want  the  Supine,  and  a  few  admit  in  the 
Future  a  rare  form  in  earn,  ies,  let. 

NOTE  1. — Transitive  compounds  have  the  Passive :  adeo,  to  approach ;  adeor,  etc. 

NOTE  2.— AmbiO  is  regular,  like  audio,  though  aniblbam  for  ambiebam  occurs. 

296.  Qued,  quire,  quivi,  quitum,  to  be  able,  and  nequed,  tiequlre^  nequwl 
(ii),  nequitum,  to  be  unable,  are  conjugated  like  co,  but  they  want  the  Im- 
perative and  Gerund,  and  are  rare  except  in  the  Present  tense.1 

DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

297.  Defective  Verbs  want  certain  parts.     The  following  are 
the  most  important : 2 

I.  PRESENT  SYSTEM  WANTING. 


Coepi,  /  have  legun.              Memini,  I  remember.             Odi,  I  hate. 

INDICATIVE. 

Perf.  coepi. 
Plup.  coeperam. 
F.  P.  coepero. 

meminl. 
memineram. 
meminero.- 

^6dl. 
oderam. 
oderO. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Perf.  coeperim. 
Plup.  coepissem. 

meminerim. 
meminissem. 

6derim. 
odissem. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Sing,  memento. 
Plur.  mementote. 

1  A  Passive  form,  quitur,  nequ'itur,  etc.,  occurs  before  a  Passive  Infinitive. 
8  For  many  verbs  which  want  the  Perfect  or  Supine,  or  both,  see  263-384. 


142 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 


INFINITIVE. 

Perf.  coepisse.  meminisse.  odisse. 

Fut.    coepturus  esse.  Osurus  esse. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Perf.  coeptus.  osus.1 

Fut.    coepturus.  Osurus. 

1.  With  PASSIVE  INFINITIVES,  coepl  generally  takes  the  Passive  form  :  coeptus  mm, 
eram,  etc.    Coeptus  is  Passive  in  sense. 

2.  Meminl  and  odl  are  Present  in  sense  ;  hence  in  the  Pluperfect  and  Future  Perfect 
they  have  the  sense  of  the  Imperfect  and  Future.    Novi,  *  I  know,'  Perfect  of  nosed,  '  to 
learn,'  and  consu&vl,  '  I  am  wont,1  Perfect  of  consuesco,  '  to  accustom  one's  self,'  are  also 
Present  in  sense. 

II.  PARTS  OF  EACH  SYSTEM  WANTING. 

1.  Aio,  I  say,  say  yes* 

Indie.  Pres.  aio,  ais,3  ait;  -     aiunt. 

Imp.  aiebam,  -ebas,  -ebat; 

Perf.  -  -  ait; 

Sidy.    Pres.  -  aias,  aiat; 
Imper.  Pres.  ai  (rare). 
Part.    Pres.  aiens. 

2.  Inquam,  I  say. 

Indie.  Pres.  inquam,        inquis,    inquit; 

Imp.  -          -    inquiebat; 
Fut.   - 


-ebamus,        -ebatis,    -ebant.4 


aiant. 


inquimus,      inquitis,  inquiunt. 


inquigs,  inquiet; 
inquisti,  inquit ; 
Fut.  inquito. 


Imper.  Pres.  inque. 

3.  Fan,  to  speak.6 
Indie.  Pres. 

Fut.   fabor, 

Perf.  fatus  sum,    es, 

Plup.  fatus  eram,  eras, 
Subj.    Perf.  fatus  sim,     sis, 

Plup.  fatus  essera,  esses, 
Imper.  Pres.  fare. 
Infin.    Pres.  far!. 
Part.     Pres.  (fans)  fantis. 
Gerund,  Gen.  and  Abl.  fandl,  do. 


fatur ; 
fabitur ; 

est ; 
erat; 
sit; 
esset ; 


fati  sumus,    estis,  sunt. 

fatl  eramus,  eratis,  erant. 

fatl  simus,     sltis,  sint. 

fatl  essemus,  essetis,  essent. 


Perf.  fatus. 
Supine,  Abl.  fatu. 


Ger.  fandus. 


1  Osus  is  Active  in  sense,  hating,  but  is  rare  except  in  compounds:  exosus,  perosus. 

2  In  this  verb  a  and  i  do  not  form  a  diphthong ;  before  a  vowel  the  i  has  the  sound 
of  y:  d-yd,  a-yunt;  see  10,  4,  3). 

8  The  interrogative  form  aisne  is  often  shortened  into  ai/rC. 
4  Aibam,  albas,  etc.,  occur;  also'in^?«5a^  for  inquiebat. 

6  Farl  is  used  chiefly  in  poetry.    Compounds  have  some  forms  not  found  in  the 
simple:  adfdmur,  adfdmim,  adfdbar ;  ejfdberis. 


IMPERSONAL    VERBS. 


143 


III.  IMPEKATIVES  AND  ISOLATED  FORMS. 


haveto ; 
salveto ; a 


Inf.  havere,1 
salvere, 


Tiail. 

Tiail. 

tell  me,  give  me. 

"begone. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 
PRESENT.       IMPERFECT. 
conflat  ;    confieret  ; 
dsfiat  ;      - 


INFINITIVE. 
confierl,    to  be  done. 
defierl,     to  be  wanting. 
to  begin. 

forent.       Inf.    fore.3 
Part,  ovans. 


1.  IMPERATIVES. 
have,         havete ; 
salve,          salvete, 
ced6,          cette, 
apage, 

2.  ISOLATED  FORMS. 

INDICATIVE. 
PRESENT.  FUTURE. 

confit;    

defit,      defmnt;    deflet; 
Infit,      influnt,     

Sub.  Imp.  forem,  fores,  foret,  

Ind.  Pres.  ovat, 

Ind.  Pres.  quaeso,  quaesumus,4  I  pray. 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

298.  Impersonal  Verbs  correspond  to  the  English  Impersonal 
with  it:  licet,  it  is  lawful;  oportet,  it  behooves.6    They  are  conju- 
gated like  other  verbs,  but  are  used  only  in  the  third  person  singu- 
lar of  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  and  in  the  Present  and  Per- 
fect Infinitive. 

299.  The  most  important  Impersonal  Verbs  are — 
decet,      decuit,  it  becomes.* 

paenitet/  paenituit,   '  it  causes  re- 

liquet,   *  licuit,  it  is  evident.8          Pu      > 

miseret,  miseritum  est,  it  excites  pity.7        .     -,  . 
oportet,  oportuit,  it  behooves.  iei» 

1.  PAETICIPLES  are  generally  wanting,  but  a  few  occur,  though  with  a  somewhat 
modified  sense:  (1)  from  LIBET:  libens,  willing;  (2)  from  LICET:  Ucens,  free;  licitus, 
allowed;  (3)  from  PAENITET:  paenitens,  penitent;  paenitendus,  to  be  repented  of;  (4) 
from  PUDET  :  pudens,  modest ;  pudendus,  shameful. 

2.  GEETJNDS  are  generally  wanting,  but  occur  in  rare  instances :  paenitendum,  pu- 
dendo. 

1  Also  written  aw,  avete,  etc. 

3  The  Future  salvebis  is  also  used  for  the  Imperative. 

3  For  em  =  essem  ;  fore  —futurum  esse;  see  204,  2. 

4  Old  forms  for  quaero  and  quaerimus. 

6  The  subject  is  generally  an  infinitive  or  clause,  but  may  be  a  noun  or  pronoun  de- 
noting a  tMng,  but  not  a  person :  hoc  fieri  oportet,  that  this  should  be  done  is  necessary. 

6  These  four  occur  in  the  third  person  plural,  but  without  &  personal  subject. 

7  Me  miseret,  I  pity ;  me  paenitet,  I  repent. 

8  Also  the  compound,  pertaedet,  pertaesum  est,  it  greatly  wearies. 


144  PARTICLES. 

300.  Generally  Impersonal  are  several  verbs  which  designate 
the  changes  of  the  weather,  or  the  operations  of  nature  : 

Fulminat^  it  lightens  ;  grandinat,  it  hails  ;  lucescit,  it  grows  light ;  plmt, 
it  rains  ;  rorat,  dew  falls  ;  tonal,  it  thunders. 

301.  Many  other  verbs  are  often  used  impersonally  : 

Acddit,  it  happens  ;  appdret,  it  appears ;  constat,  it  is  evident ;  contingit, 
it  happens ;  delectat,  it  delights  ;  dolet,  it  grieves ;  interest,  it  concerns ;  juvat, 
it  delights  ;  patet,  it  is  plain  ;  placet,  it  pleases  ;  praestat,  it  is  "better ;  refert, 
it  concerns. 

1.  In  the  PASSIVE  VOICE  intransitive  verbs  can  be  used  only  impersonally.    The  par- 
ticiple is  then  neuter : 

Mihl  creditur,  it  is  credited  to  me,  I  am  believed ;  Hbl  creditur,  you  are  believed ; 
creditum  est,  it  was  believed ;  certatur,  it  is  contended ;  curritur,  there  is  running,  peo- 
ple run;  pugndtur,  it  is  fought,  they,  we,  etc.,  fight;  vlvitur,  we,  you,  they  live. 

2.  The  PASSIVE  PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATION  (234)  is  often  used  impersonally.    The 
participle  is  then  neuter: 

Mihl  scrlbendum  est,  I  must  write ;  tibi  scrlbendum  est,  you  must  write ;  illl  scrl- 
bendum eat,  he  must  write. 


CHAPTER  V. 
PABTICLES. 

302.  THE  Latin  has  four  parts  of  speech  sometimes  called 
Particles :  the  Adverb,  the  Preposition,  the  Conjunction,  and  the  In- 
terjection. 

ADVERBS. 

303.  The  Adverb  is  the  part  of  speech  which  is  used  to  qual- 
ify verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs:  celeriter  currere,  to  run 
swiftly;  tarn  celer,  so  swift;  tarn  celeriter,  so  swiftly. 

304.  In  their  origin,  Adverbs  are  mainly  the  oblique  cases l  of 
nouns,  adjectives,  participles,  and  pronouns. 

I.  ACCUSATIVES. — Many  Adverbs  were  originally'Accusatives : 
1.  ACCUSATIVES  OF  NOUNS:  partim,  partly ;  fords,1  out  of  doors;  diu1  (for 
dium 2),  for  a  long  time.    Here  belong  numerous  adverbs  in  tim  and  sim, 
chiefly  from  verbal  nouns 3  no  longer  in  use : »  contemptim,  contemptuously ; 

1  Some,  indeed,  are  the  oblique  cases  of  words  not  otherwise  used  in  Latin,  and  some 
are  formed  by  means  of  case-endings  no  longer  used  in  the  regular  declensions. 

a  Accusative  of  dius  =  dies. 

3  Some  adverbs  in  tim  and  sim  are  from  adjectives :  singulatim,  one  by  one.  In 
time  doubtless  tim,  dtim,  sim,  and  im  came  to  be  regarded  simply  as  adverbial  suffixes, 
and  were  so  used  in  forming  new  adverbs, 


ADVERBS.  145 

sensim,   perceptibly,  slowly;  raptim,  hastily;  statim,  steadily;  furtim,  by 
stealth. 

2.  ACCUSATIVES  OF  NOUNS  WITH  PREPOSITIONS  :  ad-modum,  very,  to  the  full 
measure ;  in-vicem,  in  turn ;  in-cassum,  in  vain ;  ob-iter,  on  the  road,  in  pass- 
ing ;  ob-viam,  in  the  way,  against ;  post-modum,  after  a  short  time ;  inter- 
diu1  and  inter-dius,1  during  the  day;  inter-dum,*-  during  the  time,  in  the 
mean  time. 

3.  ACCUSATIVES  OF  ADJECTIVES: 

1)  NEUTERS  in  um,  a,  e,  us,  is :  solum,  only ;  multum,  multa,  much ;  nim~ 
ium,  too  much ;  parum,  little ;  secundum,  secondly ;  ceterum*  cetera,  as  to  the 
rest ;  verum,*  truly ;  dbunde*  abundantly ;  facile,  easily ;  saepe,*  often ;  plus, 
more ;  minus,  less ;  saepius,  more  frequently ;  magis,  more,  rather.5 

2)  FEMININES  in  am,  as :  Ufdriam*  in  two  parts ;  muUifdriam,  in  many 
parts  ;  clam  =  calam,  secretly ;  palam,  openly ;  perp&ram,  wrongly ;  alias, 
otherwise. 

4.  ACCUSATIVES  OF  PRONOUNS:  quam?  how  much;  tam,7  so  much;  turn, 
then ;  tun-c,  at  that  time ;  nun-c,  now. 

II.  ABLATIVES. — Many  Adverbs  were  originally  Ablatives : 

1.  ABLATIVES  OF  NOUNS  in  o,  e,  is:  ergo,  accordingly;8  numero,  exactly; 
forte,  by  chance  ;  jure,  rightly ;  sponte,  willingly ;  grdtiis,  or  gratis,  gratui- 
tously ;  foris,  out  of  doors. 

NOTE.— The  ablative  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  a  preposition  or  by  an  adjective : 
ex-templo,  immediately — lit.,  from  the  moment;  llico  for  in  loco,  on  the  spot;  quot- 
annls,  yearly;  multi-modls,  in  many  ways;  ho-die  (hoc-die),  to-day;  qud-re,  where- 
fore, by  which  thing. 

2.  ABLATIVES  OF  ADJECTIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES  in  a,  FEMININE,  o,  e*  and  I, 
NEUTER  :  dextrd 10  =  dexterd,  on  the  right ;  extra,11  on  the  outside ;  infra,11  on 
the  under  side ;  intrd,  on  the  inside ; — intro,  within ;  ultra,  beyond ;  perpetud, 
continually ;  rdro,  rarely ;  subito,  suddenly ;  auspicdto,  after  taking  the  aus- 

1  Diu  and  dwn  are  explained  as  forms  of  dium  =  diem,  and  dius  as  for  dies;  see 
Corssen,  I.,  pp.  232-236;  II.,  458. 

2  Often  becoming  conjunctions — ceterum,  but.    Non,  from  ne-unum,  also  belongs 
here. 

3  From  obsolete  dbundis. 

4  Here  may  be  added  semel,  '  once,'  and  simul,  *  at  the  same  time,'  both  for  simile. 

5  Secus,  'otherwise';  tenus,  'as  far  as';  protinus,  'straightforward';  and  versus, 
'  toward,'  doubtless  belong  here. 

6  Originally  partem  or  mam,  may  have  been  used. 

7  Quam,  from  stem  qua,  in  qul,  quae;  tam,  turn,  from  stem  ta,  to,  in  the  final  syl- 
lable of  iste,  for  is-tu-s,  is-ta;  tun-c  =  tum-ce,  nun-c  =  num-ce,  in  which  num  is  from 
the  stem  no,  seen  also  in  num, '  whether,'  and  also  in  its  original  form,  na,  in  nam, '  for.1 

8  Literally,  by  the  deed.    Compare  Greek  epyov,  epyo>. 

9  That  e  is  here  an  ablative  ending  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  it  appears  in  early  Latin 
in  the  form  of  ed,  an  undoubted  ablative  ending. 

10  With  these  feminines,  parte  or  via  may  have  been  originally  used. 

11  Often  becoming  prepositions.    In  fact,  all  prepositions  in  a  are  derived  from  adverbs 
which  were  originally  ablatives  in  ad,  afterward  d. 


146  ADVERBS. 

pices  ;  consulto,  after  deliberating ;  sortlto,  by  lot,  i.  e.,  after  casting  lots ; — 
docte,  learnedly  ;  libere,  freely  ;  certe*  surely  ;  recte,  rightly  ;  vere,  truly ; — 
doctissime,  most  skillfully ;  mdxime,*  especially  ; — brevl,  briefly. 

3.  ABLATIVES  OF  PRONOUNS  :  ed,  there,  in  that  way  ;  Tide,  here,  in  this  way ; 
qua,  where,  in  which  way  ;  eddem,  by  the  same  road,  in  the  same  way. 

NOTE. — Several  pronominal  adverbs  denote  direction  toward  a  point:  eo,  to  that 
place;  hoc,  hue,  to  this  place;3  Hid,  illo-c,  illu-c,  to  that  place;  isto,  isto-c,  istu-c,  to 
the  place  where  you  are ;  quo,  to  which  place. 

III.  LOCATIVES. — Some  Adverbs  were  originally  Locatives : 

1.  LOCATIVES  OF  NOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES  in  I  or  e :  Tieri,  yesterday ;  tem- 
peri,  in  time  ;  vesperi,  in  the  evening  ;  peregri,  or  peregre,  in  a  foreign  land. 

2.  LOCATIVES  OF  PRONOUNS  :  hie*  here ;  illlcf  there ;  istic,  there  where  you 
are  ;  sic,  in  this  way,  thus  ;  uti,5  ut,  in  which  way  ;  ibl,6  there  ;  ubl,  where. 

NOTE. — Locative  forms  in  im  also  occur :  olim,  formerly ;  utrim-que,  on 
both  sides  ;  illim,  illin-c,  from  that  place ;  Tiin-c,  from  this  place  ;  often  with 
de :  utrin-de,  from  both  sides  ;  in-de,  from  that  point,  thence. 

IV.  ADVERBS  IN  tus  AND  ter. — Adverbs  are  also  formed  by  means  of 
the  endings  tus 7  and  ter : 7 

Fundi-tus,  from  the  foundation ;  rddici-tus,  from  the  roots,  utterly ;  divini- 
tus,  by  divine  appointment,  divinely  ;  forti-ter,  bravely  ;  dcri-ter,  sharply ; 
duri-ter,  harshly  ;  elegan-ter,  elegantly  ;  aman-ter,  lovingly ;  pruden-ter,  pru- 
dently. 

NOTE  1. — The  stem- vowel  before  tus  becomes  i,  and  consonant  stems  as- 
sume i :  fundi-tus*  radic-i-tus.  The  stem-vowel  before  ter  also  becomes 
i :  duri-ter.*  Consonant  stems,  however,  do  not  assume  i,  but  drop  final  t : 
amant-ter,  aman-ter. 

NOTE  2. — Many  adverbs  are  simply  adverbial  phrases  or  clauses  whose 
parts  have  become  united  in  writing.  In  these  compound  forms  prepositions 

1  As  e  is  an  ablative  ending,  certo  and  certe  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same 
word ;  so  also  recto  and  recte,  vero  and  vere,  though  the  two  forms  do  not  always  have 
precisely  the  same  meaning:  vero,  in  truth;  vere,  truly. 

3  This  is  the  regular  ending  in  superlatives. 

3  These  are  sometimes  explained  as  Datives,  but  they  are  probably  Ablatives;  illd, 
lit.,  by  that  way  or  road,  finally  came  to  mean  to  that  place,  i.  e.,  to  the  place  to  which 
the  road  leads. 

4  Here  the  Locative  ending  is  I :  hi,  illl,  istl,  si ;  c  for  ce  is  a  demonstrative  ending, 
meaning  here.    Sic  is  the  Locative  of  sa;  see  313,  foot-note. 

6  Utl  contains  two  stems— u  or  cu  (seen  in  eui),  and  ta  or  to  (seen  in  te  in  is-te). 

6  In  ibl  and  ubl  the  ending  is  bl ;  i  in  ibl  is  the  stem  of  is,  he ;  u  in  ubl  is  the  same 
as  in  uti. 

7  Seen  also  in  in-ter,  in  the  midst;  in-tus,  within;  sub-ter  and  sub-tus,  below. 
These  suffixes  are  of  uncertain  origin ;  the  former  appears  to  be  a  case-suffix  with  abla- 
tive meaning,  no  longer  used  in  declension ;  the  latter,  like  ter  in  al-ter,  nos-ter,  and  dex- 
ter, has  lost  its  case-suffix,  and  may  therefore  represent  either  terd  with  an  ablative  suffix, 
or  terum  with  an  accusative  suffix.    See  Corssen,  II.,  p.  299 ;  Kuhner,  I.,  p.  679. 

8  The  stem-vowel  o  is  changed  to  i. 


ADVERBS. 


147 


are  especially  common,  and  sometimes  seem  to  be  used  with  cases  with  which 
they  do  not  otherwise  occur :  ant-ed,1  before,  before  that ;  inter-ea,  in  the 
mean  time ;  post-ea,  after ;  ante-hdc,1  before  this ;  quem-ad-modum,  in  what 
manner ;  parum-per,  for  a  while  ;  nu-per  =  novum-per,  lately  ;  tantis-per,  for 
so  long  a  time  ;  vidUicet  —  mdere  licet,  clearly — lit.,  *  it  is  permitted  to  see' ; 
scilicet  =  scire  licet,  certainly  ;  forsitan  =fors  sit  an,  perhaps. 

305.  Many  Pronominal  Adverbs,  like  the  pronouns  from  which 
they  are  formed  (191),  are  correlatives  of  each  other,  as  will  be  seen 
in  the  following 

TABLE  OP  CORRELATIVES. 


INTERROGATIVE. 

INDEFINITE. 

DEMONSTRATIVE. 

BELATIVE. 

I.  PLACE  IN  WHICH. 

alicubl,    somewhere  ; 

hlc,  here  ;  3   istlc, 

ubi,  where  ?  2 

uspiam,  usquam,  any- 
where; ubims,  where 

there  ;  illlc,  there  ; 

uH,  where. 

you  please. 

ibi,  there. 

II.  PLACE  TO  WHICH. 

hue,  to  this  place;3 

quo,  whither? 

aliquo,  to  some  place  ; 
quolibet,  quovis,  whith- 
er you  please. 

istuc,  to  that  place  ; 
illuc,  to  that  place  ; 
ed,  to  that  place  ; 
eddem,  to  the  same 

quo,  whither. 

place. 

quorsum,*  to 
what  place? 
to  what  end  ? 

aliquo-vorsum,4  to 
some  place. 

horsum,*  to  this 
place. 

qudrsum,   to 
which  place  0r 
end. 

III.  PLACE  FROM  WHICH. 

hinc,  from  this  place  ; 

alicunde,  from  some 

istinc,   from   that 

unde,  whence? 

place;  undelibet,  from 

place;  illinc,  from 

unde,  whence. 

any  place. 

that  place;  inde, 

from  that  place. 

1  Some  scholars,  regarding  ed  and  Tide  in  these  and  similar  cases  as  ablatives,  think 
that  all  such  compounds  had  their  origin  at  a  time  when  ante,  post,  inter,  etc.,  admitted 
that  case ;  but  Corssen  treats  ed  and  hoc  in  all  such  cases  as  neuters  in  the  accusative 
plural.    See  Corssen,  II.,  p.  455;  Bucheler,  p.  82. 

2  Observe  that  the  question  ubl,  'where?'  maybe  answered  indefinitely  \>y  alicu- 
l>i,  uspiam,  etc.,  or  definvtely  by  a  demonstrative  either  alone  or  with  a  relative :  hlc, 
lhere 1 ;  Azc,  ubi,  '  here,  where.' 

8  Hlc,  'here,'  'near  me';  istlc,  'there,'  'near  you';  illlc,  'there,'  'near  him';  *&!, 
'there,'  a  weak  demonstrative  and  the  most  common  correlative  of  ubl,  'where.'  See 
distinction  in  pronouns  (191).  A  similar  distinction  exists  in  Me,  istuc,  illuc,  and  ed. 

4  For  quo-vorsum  =  qud-versum, '  whither  turned ' ;  aliqud-vowum,  huc-vorswm. 


148 


ADVERBS. 


TABLE  OF  CORRELATIVES. — (Continued.) 


INTERROGATIVE. 

INDEFINITE. 

DEMONSTEATIVE. 

KELATTVB. 

IV.  TIME. 

quando^henl 

quotient,  how 
often? 

quando,  aliquando, 
unquam,  at  any  time. 

aliquotfens,  somewhat 
often. 

nunc,  now  ;   turn, 
then;  tune,  at  that 
very  time  ;  ibi,  then. 

toti'ens,  so  often. 

quom,  cum, 
quum,  when. 

quotiew,  as,  as 
often. 

V.  WAY,  MANNER,  DEGREE. 

qua,  by  or  in 
what  way  ? 

ut,  utl,  how  ? 

quam,  how 
much? 

aliqud,  by  or  in  some 
way;   quavis,  by  any 
way. 

aliqud,  in  some  way, 
etc. 

aliquam,  somewhat. 

to,  by  this  way; 
istac,  by  that  way; 
a'W&j,  by  that  way  ; 
ed,  by  that  way  ;  ed- 
dem,  by  the    same 
way. 

ita,  sic,  so,  thus. 
tarn,  so  much. 

qua,  by  which 
way. 

ut,    utl,    in 
which  way,as. 

quam,  as. 

NOTE  1.— From  Relative  Adverbs  are  formed  General  or  Indefinite  Relatives  by 
appending  -cumque  or  by  reduplicating  the  form :  ubicumque,  ubiubl,  wheresoever ; 
quocumque,  qudquo,  whithersoever. 

NOTE  2.— Other  examples  are — 

1)  PLACE: — alibi,  elsewhere;  ibidem,  in  the  same  place;  neculti,  lest  anywhere, 
that  nowhere  ;  sicubi,  if  anywhere;  alio,  to  another  place  ;  citro,  to  this  side;  vitro 
citroque,  to  and  fro ;  utroque,  to  both  places  ;  aliunde,  from  another  place ;  indidem, 
from  the  same  place ;  utrimque,  from  or  on  both  sides ;  undique,  from  all  sides. 

2)  TIME: — hodie,  to-day  ;  Jie,rl,  yesterday;  eras,  to-morrow;  prldie,  the  day  be- 
fore; postrldie,  the  day  after;  jam,  already;  jam  turn,  even  then ;  jamdiu^jamdudum^ 
jampridem,  long  ago ;  quondam,  at  a  certain  time ;  olim,  formerly,  hereafter  ;  interim, 
interea,  meanwhile;  anted,  prim,  before;  post,  posted,  afterward;  unquam,  ever; 
nunquam,  never;  semper,  at  all  times. 

3)  WAY,  MANNER,  DEGREE  :— adeo,  so  ;  aliter,  otherwise ;  magis,  more ;  paene,  al- 
most ;  palam,  openly ;  prorsus,  wholly ;  rite,  rightly ;  valde,  greatly ;  t>Zo?,  scarcely. 

4)  CAUSE  :— cur,  why;  eo,  for  this  reason;  ideo,  idcirco,  proptered,  on  this  account; 
ergo,  igitur,  itaque,  therefore,  accordingly. 

NOTE  8.— NesciO,  with  an  interrogative  adverb,  is  often  equivalent  to  an  indefinite 
adrerb :  nesciO  quomodo,  I  know  not  in  what  way  =  quodammodo,  in  some  way ; 
nescid  ubl  =  alicutii,  in  someplace;  nesciO  unde=alicunde,  from  someplace;  see  also 
191,  note. 

NOTE  4. — Adverbial  phrases  are  formed  by  combining  mirum,  or  nimium  with  quan- 
tum :  mirum  quantum,  it  is  wonderful  how  much  =  wonderfully  much,  wonderfully ; 
nimium  quantum,  exceedingly.  Mirum  quam,  sane  quam,  and  valde  quam  have  a 
similar  force :  how  wonderfully,  how  very,  how  greatly  =  exceedingly,  wonderfully. 

NOTE  5. — For  INTERROGATIVE  PARTICLES,  see  311,  8. 

NOTE  6.— For  NEGATIVE  PARTICLES,  see  552. 


PREPOSITIONS.  149 

306.  COMPAKISON. — Most  adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives, 
and  are  dependent  upon  them  for  their  comparison.     The  com- 
parative is  the  accusative  neuter  singular  of  the  adjective,  and  the 
superlative  changes  the  ending  us  of  the  adjective  into  e : l 

altus,  altior,  altissimus,  lofty. 

alte,  altius,  altissime,  loftily. 

prudens,  prudentior,  prudentissimus,  prudent. 

prudenter,  prudentius,  prudentissime,  prudently. 

1.  When  the  adjective  is  compared  with  magis  and  maxime,  the  adverb 
is  compared  in  the  same  way : 

egregius,  magis  egregius,         maxime  egregius,          excellent. 

egregie,  magis  egregie,  maxime  egregie,  excellently. 

2.  When  the  adjective  is  irregular,  the  adverb  has  the  same  irregularity : 
bonus,  melior,  optimus,  good. 

bene,  melius,  optime,  well. 

male,  pejus,  pessime,  badly. 

3.  When  the  adjective  is  defective,  the  adverb  is  generally  defective : 
deterior,  deterrimus,  worse. 

deterius,  determine,  worse. 

novus,  novissimus,  new. 

nove,  novissime,  newly. 

4.  A  few  not  derived  from  adjectives  are  compared : 

diu,  diutius,  diutissime,  for  a  long  time. 

saepe,  saepius,  saepissime,  often. 

satis,  satius,  sufficiently. 

nuper,  nuperrime,  recently. 

5.  Most  adverbs  not  derived  from  adjectives,  as  also  those  from  ad- 
jectives incapable  of  comparison  (169),  are  not  compared :  7iicy  here ;  nunc, 
now ;  vulgariter,  commonly. 

6.  Superlatives  in  o  or  um  are  used  in  a  few  adverbs :  prlmo,  primumy 
potissimum. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

307.  The  Preposition  is  the  part  of  speech  which  shows  the 
relations  of  objects  to  each  other : 

In  Italia  esse,  to  be  IN  Italy  ;  ante  me,  BEFORE  me. 

NOTE  1.— Prepositions  were  originally  adverbs,  and,  like  other  adverbs  (304),  are  in 
origin  petrified  case-forms.2 

1  See  304,  II.,  2. 

2  Thus  prepositions  in  d  are  in  origin  ablatives :  circa,  citra,  contra,  ergd,  extra, 
Infra,  etc;  while  those  in  m  are  accusatives:  circum,  ccram,  cum,  etc.    These  case- 
forms  passed  into  adverbs  denoting  direction,  situation,  etc. ;  but  they  finally  became 
associated  with  nouns  in  the  accusative  or  ablative  as  auxiliary  to  the  case-ending :  loco 


150  CONJUNCTIONS. 

NOTE  2.— For  the  USE  of  Prepositions,  see  432-437. 

NOTE  3.— For  the  FOBM  and  MEANING  of  Prepositions  in  Composition,  see  344,  5. 

308.  INSEPARABLE    PREPOSITIONS.* —  Atribi,    amb,    '  around/ 
1  about';    dis,    dl,    l asunder';    in,    'not,'    fun-';   por,    l toward,' 
'forth';  re,  red,   'back';  se,  sed,  'aside,'  'apart';  and  ve,  'not,' 
are  called  Inseparable  Prepositions,  because  they  are  used  only  in 
composition. 

NOTE.— For  the  FOBM  and  MEANING  of  the  Inseparable  Prepositions  in  Composition, 
see  344,  6. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

309.  Conjunctions  are  mere  connectives.     They  are  either  Co- 
ordinate or  Subordinate. 

1.  COORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  connect  similar  constructions : 

Labor  voluptasQUE,2  labor  AND  pleasure.    Karthaginem  cepit  AC  2  diruit,  Tie 
took  AND  destroyed  Carthage. 

2.  SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  connect  subordinate  with  principal  con- 
structions : 

Haec  DiTM3  colligunt,  effugit,  WHILE  they  collect  these  things,  he  escapes. 

310.  COORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  comprise — 

1.  COPULATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  UNION: 

M,  que,  atque,3  dc,  and ;  etiam,  quoque,  also ;  neque,  nee,  and  not ;  neque 
— neque,  nee — nee,  neque — nee,  neither — nor. 

2.  DISJUNCTIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  SEPARATION  : 

Aut*  vel,  ve,  slve  (sen),  or;  ant — aut,  vel — vel,  either — or;  sive — sive,  cith- 
er— or. 

NOTE.— Here  belong  interrogative  particles  in  double  or  disjunctive  questions :  utrum, 
num,  or  ne — cm,  whether — or;  an,  or;  annon,  necne,  or  not;  see  353. 

3.  ADVERSATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  OPPOSITION  : 

s=  FBOM  a  place ;  ex  loco  =  OUT  or  a  place ;  aliquid  loco  mover  e,  to  move  anything  FKOM 
a  place ;  aliquid  ex  loco  movere,  to  move  anything  OUT  OF  a  place.  An  adverb  thus 
separated  from  the  verb  and  brought  into  connection  with  a  noun  ceased  to  be  an  adverb 
and  became  a  preposition. 

1  Like  other  prepositions,  these  were  doubtless  originally  case-forms. 

2  Thus  que  connects  two  nominatives,  dc  two  indicatives  which  are  entirely  co5rdi- 
nate,  took  AND  destroyed,  but  dum  connects  the  subordinate  clause,  haec — colligunt, 
with  the  principal  clause,  effugit — Tie  escapes  WHILE  they  collect  these  things. 

3  Copulative  conjunctions  are  et  =  Greek  en,  que  =  »eai,  and  their  compounds — et-iam 
or  et-jam,  at-que,  quo-que,  ne-que.    Ac  is  a  shortened  form  ofat-que;  nee,  ofne-que. 

4  Disjunctives  are  aut,  vel,  00,  with  their  compounds :  vel  =  veils,  '  should  you  wish,' 
offering  a  choice,  ve  —  vis,  'you  wish,'  as  in  qul-vis,  'any  you  please' ;  sive  =  sivls^  'if 
you  wish.' 


CONJUNCTIONS.  151 

Bed*  autem,  verum,  vero,  but;  at,  but,  on  the  contrary;  atqui,  rather; 
ceterum,  but  still,  moreover;5  tamen,  yet. 

4.  ILLATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  INFERENCE  : 

Ergo,  igitur,  inde,  proinde,  itaque,  hence,  therefore  ;  see  also  554,  IV.,  2. 

6.  CAUSAL  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  CAUSE  : 

Nam,  namque,  enim,  etenim,  for.3 

311.  SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  comprise — 

1.  TEMPORAL  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  TIME  : 

Quando,  quom,*  cum,  or  quum,  when ;  ut,  ubi,  as,  when ;  cum  (quom  or 
quum)  prlmum,  ut  primum,  ubi  primum,  simul,  simultic,  simul  tic,  simul- 
atque,  simul  atque,  as  soon  as ;  dum,  donee,  quoad,  quamdiu,5  while,  until,  as 
long  as ;  antequam,  priusquam,  before ;  postetiquam,  after. 

2.  COMPARATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  COMPARISON  : 

Ut,  utl,  sicut,  sicuti,  as,  so  as ;  velut,  just  as ;  praeut,  prout,  according  as, 
in  comparison  with ;  quam,  as  ;  tanquam,  quasi,  ut  si,  tic  si,  velut  si,  as  if. 

3.  CONDITIONAL  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  CONDITION  : 

Si,6  if;  si  non,  nisi,  ni,  if  not;  sin,  but  if;  si  quidem,  if  indeed;  si  modo, 
dum  modo,  dummodo,  if  only,  provided. 

4.  CONCESSIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  CONCESSION  : 

Quamquam,  licet,'1  cum  (quom,*'  or  quum},  although ;  etsi,  tametsi,  etiamsi, 
even  if;  quamvis,7  quantumvis,  quantumlibet,7  however  much,  although ;  ut, 
grant  that ;  ne,  grant  that  not. 

6.  FINAL  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  PURPOSE  or  END  : 
Ut,  utl,  that,  in  order  that ;  ne,  neve  (neu),  that  not ;  quo,  that ;  quominus,6 
that  not. 

6.  CONSECUTIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  CONSEQUENCE  or  RESULT  : 
Ut,  so  that ;  ut  non,  quin,8  so  that  not. 

1  Conjunctions,  like  adverbs,  consist  largely  of  case-forms,  chiefly  from  pronominal 
stems.    Thus,  secf,  vero,  ergo,  etc.,  are  explained  as  ablatives  (sed  from  sui);  aufom, 
verum,  ceterum,  quam,  quod,  quom,  or  cum,  etc.,  as  accusatives;  que,  ubi,  utl,  ut,  etc., 
as  locatives. 

2  Lit.,  as  to  the  rest* 

3  But  most  Causal  Conjunctions  are  subordinate;  see  311,  T. 

4  Quom,  the  original  form  out  of  which  cum  and  quum  were  developed  (22;  26, 
foot-note),  occurs  in  early  Latin,  as  in  Plautus.     Cum  is  the  approved  form  in  classical 
Latin. 

6  See  304,  I.,  1  and  2,  foot-notes. 

6  Probably  locative,  possibly  instrumental ;  see  page  73,  foot-note  2. 

7  Licet  is  strictly  a  verb,  meaning  it  is  permitted;  vis,  in  quam-vls  and  quantum- 
vw,  is  also  a  verb:  quam-ms,  'as  much  as  you  wish';  as  is  also  libet,  'it  pleases,'  in 
quantum-libet,  '  as  much  as  is  pleasing.1 

8  Quominus  =  quo  minus,  '  by  which  less ' ;  quln  —  qul  ne, '  by  which  not.' 


152  FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 

7.  CAUSAL  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  CAUSE  : 

Quia,  quod,  quoniam,1  quando,  because,  inasmuch  as ;  cum  (quom,  quum\ 
since ;  quanddquidem,  siquidem*  utpote,  since  indeed. 

8.  INTERROGATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS,  denoting  INQUIRY  : 3 

Ne,  nonne,  num,  utrum,  an,  whether ;  an  non,  necne,  or  not. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

312.  Interjections  are  certain  particles  used  as  expressions  of 
feeling  or  as  mere  marks  of  address.4    They  may  express — 

1.  Astonishment:  0,  hem,  ehem,  atat,  bubae,  yah,  In,  ecce. 

2.  Joy :  id,  evoe,  euge,  eja,  o,  papae. 

3.  Sorrow :  vac,  ei,  Jieu,  eheu,  ohe,  ah,  au,  pro. 

4.  Disgust:  alia,  phy,  apage. 

5.  Calling :  Jieus,  o,  eho,  ehodum. 

6.  Praise  :  eu,  euge,  eja,  Tieja. 


CHAPTEE    VI. 
FORMATION    OF    WORDS. 


SECTION   I. 

ROOTS.-STEMS.-SUFFIXES. 

313.  Words  are  formed  from  stems  (46,  1),  and  stems  from 
roots  or  from  other  stems. 

NOTE  1.— Thus  status,  'position,1  is  formed  from  the  stem  statu  by  adding  the  nom- 
inative suffix  s,6  but  the  stem  statu  is  itself  formed  from  the  root  sta  by  appending  the 
derivative  suffix  tu. 

1  Compounded  of  quom-jam,  when  now. 

2  Lit.,  if  indeed. 

3  These  are  sometimes  classed  as  Adverbs.    In  some  of  their  uses  they  are  plainly 
Conjunctions^  while  in  other  cases  they  approach  closely  to  the  nature  of  Adverbs.    As 
a  matter  of  convenience  they  may  be  called  Interrogative  Particles;  see  351, 1. 

4  Some  interjections  seem  to  be  the  simple  and  natural  utterance  of  feeling,  and 
accordingly  do  not  appear  to  have  been  built  up,  like  other  words,  from  roots  and  stems, 
but  to  be  themselves  specimens  of  the  unorganized  elements  of  human  speech.    Others, 
however,  are  either  inflected  forms,  as  age,  'come,'  apage  =  airaye,  'begone,1  or  muti- 
lated sentences  or  clauses :  mehercules,  meliercuU,  etc.,  =  me  Hercules  juvet,  *  may 
Hercules  protect  me1;  mecastor,  'may  Castor  protect  me1;  medius  Jidius,  'may  the 
true  God  help  me  "* ;  e castor  =  en  Castor,  '•  lo  Castor.1 

6  This  8  is  doubtless  a  remnant  of  an  old  demonstrative,  sa,  meaning  that,  he.  she. 


ROOTS.— STEMS.  153 

NOTE  2. — Words  are  either  simple  or  compound : 

1.  Simple,  when  formed  from  single  roots  with  or  without  suffixes. 

2.  Compound,  when  formed  by  the  union  of  two  or  more  roots  or  stems;  see 
340,  III. 

314.  ROOTS. — Roots  are  the  primitive  elements  out  of  which 
all  words  in  our  family  of  languages  have  been  formed.1    They  are 
of  two  kinds : 

I.  PREDICATIVE  ROOTS,  also  called  VERBAL  EooTS.2    These  designate  or 
name  objects,  actions,  or  qualities  :  es  in  es-t,  he  is  ;  i  in  l-re,  to  go ;  due  in 
duc-s  =  dux,  leader ;  doc  in  doc-ilis,  docile. 

II.  DEMONSTRATIVE  Koois,3  also  called  PRONOMINAL  EOOTS.    These  do  not 
name  objects  or  actions,  but  simply  point  out  the  relation  of  such  objects  or 
actions  to  the  speaker :  me  in  mei,  of  me ;  tu  in  tul,  of  you ;  i  hi  is,  that,  that 
one,  he. 

315.  The  STEMS  4  of  simple  "words  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes  :  Root  Stems,  Primary  Stems,  and  Secondary  Stems. 

316.  ROOT  STEMS  are  either  identical  with  roots,  or  are  formed 
from  them  without  the  aid  of  suffixes : 

Due-is,  *  of  a  leader,7  root-stem  due  ;  5  es-tis,  ;  you  are,7  root-stem  es  ;  reg-es, 
1  kings,7  root-stem  reg  /  voc-is,  '  of  the  voice,7  root-stem  voc  ;  murmur-is,  *  of 
a  murmur,7  root-stem  murmur. 

317.  PRIMARY  STEMS  are  formed  from  roots  by  means  of  suf- 
fixes:6 

1  These  roots  were  probably  all  monosyllabic,  and  were  once  used  separately  as  words, 
but  not  as  parts  of  speech.    Thus  es,  the  root  of  sum,  esse, '  to  be,'  and  i,  the  root  of  eb, 
Ire,  *  to  go,'  were  doubtless  used  in  their  original  form,  as  significant  words,  long  before 
the  verbs  themselves  had  an  existence. 

2  Observe  that  from  this  class  of  roots,  whether  called  Predicative  or  Verbal,  may 
be  formed  the  stems,  not  only  of  verbs,  but  also  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and,  in  fact  of  all 
the  parts  of  speech  except  pronouns. 

3  The  learner  should  note  the  difference  in  signification  between  Predicative  and 
Demonstrative  Roots.    Thus  duos  has  a  definite  meaning,  and  must  always  designate 
one  who  leads;  while  the  pronoun  ego  is  not  the  name  of  any  person  or  thing,  but  may 
be  used  by  any  and  every  person  in  speaking  of  himself. 

4  The  learner  has  already  become  familiar  with  the  use  of  stems  in  the  inflection  of 
nouns,  adjectives,  etc. ;  but  stems,  like  roots,  were  probably  once  used  as  words. 

5  The  basis  of  every  inflected  word  is  a  stem.    Due  is  therefore  the  stem  of  due-is, 
but  as  it  can  not  bo  derived  from  a  more  primitive  form,  it  is  also  a  root.    According  to 
some  authorities,  reg,  the  stem  of  reg-es,  and  voe,  the  stem  of  voc-es,  are  not  roots,  but 
derived  from  more  primitive  forms— reg  in  reg-0,  and  voein  voc-0;  according  toother 
authorities,  however,  reg  and  reg  are  only  two  forms  of  the  same  root ;  so  also  voc  and 
voc,  due  and  due.    The  stem  murmur  is  not  a  root,  but  formed  from  the  root  mur 
by  reduplication.    See  Curtius,  Chron.,  p.  25;  Schleicher,  pp.  841-850;  Meyer,  pp.  8, 
371-876. 

6  Any  'suffix  used  to  form  a  Primary  Stem  is  called  a  Primary  Suffix;  see  320. 

8 


154  STEMS. 

KOOT.  SUFFIX.  STEM.  WORD. 

ar,  vo,  ar-vo,  ar-vu-m,i  field. 

fac,  to,  fac-to,  fac-tu-s,1  made. 

sta,  tu,  sta-tu,  sta-tu-s,  position. 

NOTE.— All  stems  formed  from  verb-stems  are  also  generally  classed  as  Primary 
Stems:2  curd-tor,  'guardian,1  'curator,'  from  euro,  Ho  care  for,1  from  cur  a,  'care.1 

318.  SECONDARY  STEMS  are  formed  from  other  stems 3  by  means 
of  suffixes : 4 

STEM.  SUFFIX.  SECONDABY  STEM.         WOBD. 

civi,6  co;  clvi-co,  civicus,  civic. 

victor,5  ia;  vlctor-ia,  victoria, 

victor,  Ic ;  vlctor-ic,  victrtx,* 

319.  The  STEMS  OF  COMPOUND  WORDS  are  formed  by  the  union 
of  two  or  more  stems,  or  of  a  stem  with  a  root  : 

fu-era,r  fu-era-s,  you  had  been. 

grand-aevo,8  grand-aevu-s,  of  great  age. 

igni-color,9  igni-color,  fire-colored. 

magn-animo,10  magn-animu-s,  great-souled. 

NOTE  1.— Words  are  formed  from  Stems  by  means  of  the  Suffixes  of  Inflection ;  see 
46  and  202,  note  1. 

NOTE  2.— A  single  root  often  gives  rise  to  a  large  class  of  forms.  Thus,  from  the  root 
eta, '  to  stand,1  are  derived — 

1.  The  numerous  forme  which  make  up  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  std,  stare,  stetl, 
tstatum,  to  stand. 

2.  All  the  forms  of  the  verb  sisto,  sistere,  stitl,  statum, l  to  place.1 

3.  Numerous  other  forms.    Thus  (1),  sta-oilis,  'stable,1  'firm,1  from  which  are  de- 
rived stabilid,  'to  make  firm 1 ;  stabilitds,  'firmness,1  and  stabiliter,  '  firmly1 ;  (2)  stabu- 
luwi, '  a  standing  place,1  '  stable,1  from  which  are  derived  stabulo,  and  stabulor,  '  to  have 
a  standing  place 1 ;  (3)  stamen,  '  something  standing,1  '  warp  in  an  upright  loom 1  ;  (4) 
iBtatim,  4in  standing,1  'at  once1;  (5)  statio,  'standing1;  (6)  statlvus,  'stationary1;  (7) 
Stator,  *a  stayer1 ;  and  (8)  status,  'position,1  from  which  is  derived  statuo,  'to  place,1 
Which  in  turn  becomes  the  basis  of  statua,  '  a  statue,1  and  statura, '  stature.1 

1  Ar-vo-m  weakened  to  arvum,  fac-to-8  to  factus;  see  22,  2. 

2  This  is  a  matter  of  convenience,  as  new  stems,  or  words,  are  formed  from  verb-stems 
in  the  same  manner  as  from  roots ;  see  Schleicher,  p.  34T. 

3  Except  verb-stems.    Kemember  that  stems  formed  from  verb-stems  are  treated  as 
Primary;  see  317,  note. 

4  Any  suffix  used  to  form  a  Secondary  stem  is  called  a  Secondary  suffix,  but  many 
suffixes  may  be  either  primary  or  secondary.    Thus  co  in  clvicus  is  Secondary,  as  it 
is  added  to  a  stem ;  but  in  locus,  'place,1  it  is  Primary,  as  it  is  added  to  a  root. 

6  Clti  is  the  stem  otcivis,  citizen  ;  victor  of  victor,  conqueror. 

6  For  Victoria,  by  contraction. 

7  Compounded  of  root  fu  with  stem  era  from  the  root  es;  see  203,  note  2,  and  243. 

8  For  grandi-aevo. 

9  Compounded  of  igni,  the  stem  of  ignis,  *  fire,1  and  of  color,  the  stem  of  color, '  color.1 
10  Compounded  of  mdgno,  the  stem  of  mdgnus, '  great,1  and  of  animo,  the  stem  of 

,  'soul1;  mdgno-animo becoming mdgnanimo. 


SUFFIXES. 


155 


320.  SUFFIXES. — Most  suffixes1  appear  to  have  been  formed 
from  a  comparatively  small  number  of  primitive  elements  called 

PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. 


I. 

II.2 

EXAMPLES. 

a, 

a,3  o,  e,  e,  i, 
6,u, 

a  and  o  in  nouns  and  adjectives,  e  in  nouns, 
and  e,  i,  5,  and  u  in  verbs  :  scrib-a,  writer  ; 
fug-a,  flignt  ;  juff-0)  -Norn,  jug-u-mf  yoke  ; 
fid-e,  Nom.  fid-e-s,  faith;  reg-e*  rule  thou; 
reg-i-S)  you  rule  ;  reg-o,  I  rule  ;  reg-u-nt,  they 
rule. 

i, 

i, 

in  a  few  nouns  :  av-i,  Nom.  av-i-s,  bird  ;  arc-i, 
Norn.  arc-i~s,  arc-sf  arx,  citadel. 

u, 

u> 

in  nouns  :  7  ac-u,  Nom.  ac-u-s,  needle. 

an, 

on,  on,  en, 
in, 

denoting  either  the  ACT  or  the  AGENT;  asperg- 
on,  Nom.  aspergfi*  (G.  inis),  sprinkling;  ger- 
on,  gerd8  (G.  dms\  a  carrier;  pect-en  (G.  inis), 
a  comb. 

ant,9 

ent,  unt, 

in  present  participles  :  10  audient-s^  audiens, 
hearing  ;  ab-es-ent-s,  ob-sens,  absent  ;  amd- 
ent-s,  amdns,  loving. 

1  Most  suffixes  appear  to  be  of  pronominal  origin,  i.  e.,  from  pronominal  stems  or 
roots,  but,  according  to  Bopp,  Corssen,  and  others,  a  few  may  be  of  verbal  origin.    Thus 
in  several  suffixes  beginning  with  &— seen  in  oer,  Mlis,  bulum,  etc.— Corssen  recognizes 
the  root  bhar  —  fer  inf&r-O,  *  to  bear ' ;  in  some  beginning  with  £— seen  in  ter,  tor,  turns, 
etc. — the  root  tar,  'to  accomplish' ;  in  some  beginning  with  c — seen  in  cer,  culum,  crum, 
etc.— the  root  kar  =  cer,  ere  in  cre-0,  *  to  make.'    For  a  discussion  of  the  subject,  see 
Bopp,  III.,  pp.  186-201;  Corssen,  I.,  p.  567;  II.,  pp.  40,  68;  Schleicher,  p.  443. 

2  Column  I.  shows  the  suffix  in  its  supposed  original  form,  while  column  II.  shows 
the  various  forms  which  the  suffix  has  assumed  in  Latin. 

3  Originally  long  in  Latin  in  feminine  forms ;  see  21,  2, 1). 

4  Observe  that  these  suffixes  form  stems,  not  cases.   Sometimes  the  Nominative  Sing- 
ular is  in  form  identical  with  the  stem  ;  but  in  most  cases,  the  Nominative  is  formed 
from  the  stem  by  adding  the  Nominative  suffix,  as  s  in  Jide-s,  m  in  jugu-m  forjugo-m 
(o  weakened  to  u,  22,  2). 

8  Observe  that  the  Present  stem  takes  the  several  forms,  reg-e,  reg-i,  reg-0,  reg-u ; 
but  see  page  118,  foot-note  5. 

6  Often  thus  dropped;  sometimes  changed  to  e,  e:  mari,  mare,  sea;  caedi,  caede, 
caede-s,  slaughter. 

7  Also  in  adjectives,  in  union  with  i  making  ui:  ten-ui-8,  thin. 

8  N dropped;  see  36,  5,  8). 

9  This  is  the  base  of  several  compound  suffixes :  ent-o,  ent-id,  ent-io — Nom.  ent' 
um, ent-ia,  and ent-ium ;  ftu-ent-um,  stream;  sapi-ent-ia,  wisdom ;  sil-ent-ium,  silence. 

10  Also  in  a  few  adjectives  and  nouns :  frequ-ent-s,  frequens,  frequent;  pari-ent-s^ 
parSns.    Here  «  is  the  Nominative  ending. 


156 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. — (Continued.) 


I. 

II. 

EXAMPLES. 

as, 

os,  us,  es,1 
es,  or,  ur, 

gen-os,  gen-us,*  birth;  corp-usf  body;  nub-2s, 
cloud  ;  rob-ur*  strength  ;  sop-or  (21,2),  sleep. 

ja4  =  ya, 

ia,5  io,  ie, 

ia  and  io  in  adjectives  ;  ie  in  nouns  :  ex-im-id, 
ex-im-io,  Nona,  ex-im-iu-s,  ex-im-ia,  ex-im- 
iu-m,  select  ;  fac-ie,  Nom.  fac-ie-s,  appear- 
ance. 

ja6  =  y«, 

e,  i,  16,  iu, 

in  verbs:  cap-e,  take  thou;  cap-e-re,  to  take; 
cap-i-s,  you  take;  cap-i-mu$,  we  take;  cap- 
id,  I  take  ;  cap-iu-nt,  they  take. 

jans7  = 

yans, 

ids,  ior,  ius, 
J6r,  fir, 

in  comparatives  :  mag-ids,  mag-ior,  md-jor,  Nom. 
md-jor  (21,  2),  greater;  min-dr,  min-or  (21, 
2),  smaller  ;  see  162,  165. 

ka, 

ca,  co, 

rare  :  8  pau-cd,  pau-co,  pau-cus,  a,  um,  small  ; 
lo-co,  locus,  place. 

la, 

la,  Io,  li, 

see  ra. 

ma,' 

ma,  mo, 

for-ma,  form  ;  prl-mo,  prl-mus,  first  ;  sup-mo, 
sum-mo  (34,  3),  sum-mus,  highest;  al-mo, 
al-mus,  cherishing. 

1  This  suffix  seems  to  be  used  in  forming  the  Latin  Infinitive,  in  origin  the  Dative  of 
a  verbal  noun :  reg-es-e,  reg-ere  (31, 1),  'to  rule'— lit.,  for  ruling;  e  is  the  Dative  end- 
ing (67,  note);  see  Schleicher,  p.  4T2.    See  also  page  81,  foot-note  2. 

2  With  variable  vowel  (57,  2);  in  early  Latin  o,  in  classical  Latin  u  in  Nominative 
Singular,  e  in  other  cases.    We  thus  have  in  early  Latin  os  in  gen-os,  and  in  classical 
Latin  u«  in  gen-us,  and  es  changed  to  er  (31, 1)  in  gen-er-is,  gen-er-l,  etc.    Words  of 
this  class  take  no  Nominative  ending. 

3  With  variable  vowel — o,  u.    We  thus  have  corp-us,  corp-or-is,  with  8  changed  to 
r  (31, 1).    S  final  is  also  changed  to  r  in  robur\  see  31,  2. 

4  Doubtless  a  pronominal  stem.    It  is  common  as  a  secondary  suffix  (page  154,  foot- 
note 4) :  pater-iO)  patr-io,  Nom.  patr-ius,  paternal;  mctdr-ia,  victory;  luxur-ia,  lilx- 
ur-ies,  luxury;  see  325. 

5  Originally  long  in  Latin,  see  21,  2, 1). 

6  Probably  the  verbal  root^'ff,  identical  with  i  in  Ire,  to  go.    So  explained  by  Curtius, 
Yerbum,  I.,  pp.  290-295.    Ja  was  also  used  as  a  secondary  suffix,  appended  to  the  stems 
of  nouns  and  adjectives,  in  forming  denominative  verbs;  see  335,  foot-note. 

7  This  suffix  is  generally  secondary:   alt-ior,  alt-ins,  higher;  sapient-ior,  wiser; 
see  162. 

8  It  seems  to  appear  without  its  final  vowel  in  some  nouns  in  x :  ape-c-8,  apex,  point, 
top.    It  is  common  as  a  secondary  suffix:  clvi-co,  clvi-cus,  civic  (330);  and  is  also 
used  in  compound  suffixes,  as  cu-lo,  ci-no,  ti-co :  flos-cu-lus,  a  small  flower;  vdti-ci-ims, 
prophetic.    See  Schleicher,  p.  478;  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  205,  306,  SOT. 

9  This  is  also  an  element  in  ti-ma,  ti-mo,  si-md,  si-mo,  is-si-md,  is-si-mo:  op-ti- 
mus,  a,  iim,  best;  aU-is-si-mus,  highest. 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. 


157 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. — {Continued.) 


I. 

II. 

EXAMPLES. 

man,1 

men,3  min,2 
mon, 

denoting  the  MEANS  of  the  action,  sometimes 
the  ACT  itself,  or  its  RESULT  :  tegi-men,  or  teg- 
men*  a  covering  ;  no-men*  name  ;  certa-men, 
contest  ;  ser-mon,  ser-mbf  discourse. 

na,* 

na,  no, 

1.  in  adjectives  with  the  force  of  perfect  parti- 
ciples :  5  plena,  pie-no,  ple-nus,  a,  um,  filled, 
full;  reg-no,  reg-num,  kingdom,  that  which 
is  ruled. 
2.  in  nouns  and  adjectives  with  various  mean- 
ings :  8  sop-no,  som-no  (33,  3,  note),  som-nus, 
sleep. 

ni, 

ni,7 

ig-ni,  ig-nis,  fire  ;  pd-ni,  pd-nis,  bread. 

nu, 

nu, 

very  rare  :  ma-nu,  ma-nus,  hand. 

ra,*la, 

ra,  ro,  la, 
lo,li, 

ag-ro  (agrus),  ager,  field;  sac-ro  (sac-rus),  sacer, 
sac-ra,  sac-rum,  sacred  ;  sed-la,  sel-la  (34,  2), 
seat  ;  cande-la,  a  light  ;  te-lo,  te-him,  weapon  ; 
doci-li,  doci-lis,  docile. 

ta,' 

ta,  to,  sa, 

BO, 

1.  in  perfect  participles  :  10  amd-td,  amd-tus,  a, 
itm,  loved  ;  plaud-to,  plau-so  (35,  3),  plau- 
sus,  applauded  ;  co-nd-tus,  having  tried  ;  prdn- 
sus,  having  taken  lunch. 
2.  in  a  few  adjectives  :  sex-to,  sex-tus,  sixth. 

1  This  is  an  element  in  men-to,  mon-id,  and  mon-io:  nutri-men-tum,  nutriment; 
queri-mon-ia,  complaint;  testi-mon-ium  (secondary  suffix),  testimony. 

a  With  variable  vowel  (57,  2).  The  suffix  man  is  weakened  to  men  in  the  Nomina- 
tive Singular,  and  to  min  in  the  other  cases. 

3  For  gno-men,  '  name,'  the  means  by  which  one  is  known. 

*  N  is  dropped;  see  36,  5,  3). 

5  Nearly  equivalent  to  ta.    In  some  languages  it  forms  passive  participles  like  ta. 

6  Often  secondary :  pater-no, pater-nus,  paternal;  sometimes  preceded  by  d,  I,  or  e : 
font-a-nus,  of  a  fountain;  can-l-nus,  canine;  ali-e-nus,  belonging  to  another;  see  327, 
329,  and  330. 

7  As  fa  and  na  are  closely  related  in  meaning  and  use,  so  are  ti  and  ni.    They  are 
sometimes  united  in  the  same  suffix :  ti-o-ni  (326). 

8  Ra  and  la  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same  suffix.    In  Latin  and  Greek  this 
suffix  often  forms  verbal  adjectives  which  sometimes  pass  into  nouns  :  gnd-rus,  'know- 
ing,' from  gnd  in no-sco,  '  to  know' ;  Sw-pov,  'gift,'  '  something  given,'  from  60  in  Si'Sw/u, 
'to  give.' 

9  In  the  form  of  ti  it  is  the  first  element  in  ti-mus,  «,  urn :  op-ti-mus,  best ;  and  the 
second  element  in  is-si-mus,  a,  um :  alt-is-si-mus,  highest.    In  the  form  of  td,  it  is  the 
first  element  in  td-ti,  shortened  to  tdt :  civi-tds  =  clvi-tdt-s,  state. 

10  Often  becoming  adjectives  or  nouns:  al-to,  al-tus,  high  ;  nd-tus,  son. 


158 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. — (Continued.) 


I. 

II. 

EXAMPLES. 

tar, 

ter,  tdr, 

see  tra. 

ti,1 

ti,8  si, 

in  verbal  nouns  :  ves-ti,  ves-tis,  gannent  ;  met-ti, 
met-tis,  messis  (35,  3),  reaping,  harvest. 

tu, 

«,' 

in  verbal  nouns,  including  supines  :  sta-tu,  sta- 
tus, standing;  i-tu,  i-tus,  going;  dic-tu  (su- 
pine), in  telling,  to  tell. 

tar,4tra,4 

ter,  tor,  tro, 

ter  5  and  tdr  denoting  AGENCY  ;  tro,  MEANS  : 
pa-ter,  father;  ma-ter,  mother;  mc-tor,  con- 
queror ;  audi-tor,  hearer  ;  ard-trum,  plough. 

va, 

vo,  uo, 

in  nouns  and  adjectives  :  ar-w,  ar-vum,  ploughed 
field  ;  vac-uo,  vac-uus,  empty. 

SECTION   II. 

DERIVATION    OF    WORDS. 

FORMATION    OF    STOUKS    BY   SUFFIXES. 

I.  FROM  THE  STEMS  OF  OTHER  NOUNS. 

321.  DIMINUTIVES  generally  end  in — 

lus,  la,  lum;  ulus,  ula,  ulum;  culus,  cula,  culum:6 

1  Ti  is  the  first  element  in  ti-d,  ti-o,  ti-e,  ti-o-ni,  ti-on  (i  dropped) :  justi-tia,  jus- 
tice; servi-tio,  servi-tium,  service;  duri-tie,  duri-ties,  hardness;  sta-tion,  sta-tid  (n 
dropped),  station. 

2  /often  disappears :  men-ti,  men-tis,  men-ts,  mens  (36,  2),  mind. 

3  Tu  is  the  first  element  in  the  suffixes,  tu-a,  tu-o ;  tu-ti,  tut,  and  tu-don :  sta-tua, 
statue;  mor-tuus,  dead;  8&rvi-tuti,  servi-tut  (servi-tuts),  servi-tus,  servitude;  turpi- 
tudon,  turpi-tudo  (n  dropped),  turpitude. 

4  Perhaps  of  verbal  origin  (32O,  foot-note  1).    This  suffix  seems  to  be  the  basis  of 
several  compound  suffixes :  tor-id,  tor-io,  turd,  tiiro,  trie  for  tor-l-c,  etc. ;  see  examples, 
324,  336,  33O. 

6  Ter  is  used  in  names  denoting  family  relationship,  originally  AGENCY  :  pa-ter, 
lit,  protector,  from  the  root  pa,  to  protect. 

6  For  the  convenience  of  the  learner  the  suffixes  are  given  in  the  Nominative  form, 
i.  e.,  with  the  Nominative  ending  and  the  modified  stem-vowel.  Observe  that  the  stem 
suffix  in  lu-8  and  lu-m  is  lo.  The  endings,  ulus,  ula,  ulum,  were  developed  irregularly 
after  the  analogy  of  u-lus,  u-la,  u-lum  in  such  words  as  hortu-lus,  virgu-lus,  oppidu- 
lum,  where  the  u  is  the  modified  stem-vowel.  Thus  the  u  in  reg-u-lus  and  capit-u-lum 
is  an  irregularity  introduced  from  the  Diminutives  of  a  and  o  stems.  Lus,  la,  lum  are 
formed  from  the  suffix  la  or  ra,  often  used  in  forming  Primary  Stems  (320).  Culus, 
cula,  culum  are  compound  suffixes  in  which  the  first  part,  cu,  is  formed  from  the  suffix, 
originally  ka,  modified  in  Latin  to  c-o,  cu,  seen  in  lo-co-8,  locus,  place ;  see  320,  ka,  foot-note. 


NOUNS. 


159 


a  little  son,              f  re 

>m      filius, 

son. 

a  little  daugJUer, 

4         fllia, 

daughter*. 

a  small  hall, 

1         atrium, 

hall. 

a  small  cavity, 

4        alveus, 

cavity. 

a  small  garden. 

(         hortus, 

garden. 

a  small  branch, 

*         virga, 

branch. 

a  small  town. 

oppidum, 

town. 

a  petty  king, 

rex, 

Icing. 

a  small  head, 

caput, 

head. 

a  small  flower, 

flos, 

flower. 

a  small  part, 

pars, 

part. 

a  small  present,          * 

4         munus, 

present. 

filio-lus, 

filio-la, 

atrio-lum, 

alveo-lus, 

hortu-lus, 

virgu-la, 

oppidu-lum, 

reg-ulus, 

capit-ulum, 

flos-culus, 

parti-cilia, 

munus-culum, 

1.  Lus,  la,  lum,  are  appended  to  a  and  o  stems ;  ulus,  ula,  ulum,  to 
Dental  and  Guttural  stems ;  culus,  cula,  culum,  to  e,  i,  and  u  stems,  and 
to  Liquid  and  s  stems ;  see  examples. 

2.  Before  lus,  la,  lum,  the  stem-vowels  I  and  o  take  the  form  of  o 
after  e  or  i,  and  the  form  of  u  in  other  situations :  fllio-lus,  filio-la  for 
filia-la,  hortu-lus  for  horto-lus. 

3.  Before  culus,  cula,  culum,  stems  in  u  change  u  into  i,  and  stems 
in  on  change  o  into  u :  versi-culus,  4  a  little  verse,*  from  versus ;  homun- 
culus,  4  a  small  man/  from  homo.    Like  nouns  in  on,  a  few  other  words 
form  diminutives  in  un-culus,  un-cula  :  av-unculus,  4  maternal  uncle,'  from 
avus,  4  grandfather.* l 

4.  El-lus,  el-la,  el-lum,  il-lus,  il-la,  il-lum,2  are  used  when  the  stem 
of  the  primitive  ends  in  i  or  o,  preceded  by  1,  n,  or  r :  ocel-lus,9  4  small 
eye,'  from  oculus ;  fabel-la,  4 short  fable,'  from  fabula ;  vll-lum*  4 a  small 
wine,'  from  vinum. 

NOTE.— The  endings  leus  and  cid  occur:  ecu-leus,3  'a  small  horse,'  from  equus; 
homun-cid,  *  a  small  man,'  from  JiomO. 

322.  PATRONYMICS,  or  names  of  DESCENT,  generally  end  in — 
des,  stem-suffix  da,  masculine  ;  s  for  ds,  stem-suffix  d,  feminine. 

Tantali-des,        son  of  Tantalus ;          Tantali-s,         daughter  of  Tantalus.1 
ThesT-des,  son  of  Theseus ;  Thesei-s,         daugUer  of  TJieseus. 

Thestia-des,        son  of  Thestius ;  Thestia-s,        daughter  of  Thestius. 

NOTE.— The  suffix  n<?,  preceded  by  I  or  5,  is  sometimes  used  in  forming  feminine  Pat- 
ronymics: Neptunl~ne,  daughter  of  Neptune ;  Acrisio-ne,  daughter  of  Acrisius. 

1  Nwbe-cula,  plebe-cula,  and  vulpe-cula  are  formed  as  if  from  e-stems. 

2  The  syllables  el  and  U  do  not  belong  to  the  ending,  but  are  produced  by  a  slight  change 
in  the  stem.    The  quantity  of  the  vowel  e  or  i  is  therefore  determined  by  the  primitive : 
thus,  oculus,  oculu-lus  =  ocul-lus  =  ocel-lus  ;  mnum,  vlnu-lum  =  vln-lum  —  vll-lum. 

3  Also  written  equuleus,  but  eculeus  is  the  approved  form. 

4  The  vowel  preceding  the  suffix  is  usually  *,  as  in  Tantali-des^  Tantali-s,  modified 
from  the  stem-vowel  o.    Primitives  in  eus  generally  change  eu  to  I  or  ei,  as  in  Thesl- 
des,  Thesei-s;  and  primitives  in  ius  change  stem-vowel  o  to  a,  as  in  Thestia-des. 
Other  nouns  sometimes  form  Patronymics  after  the  analogy  of  nouns  in  ius :  Ldertiade^ 
son  of  Laertes,    Aeneas  has  Aeneades,  masculine,  and  Aeneis,  feminine, 


160  DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 

323.  DESIGNATIONS  OF  PLACE  are  often  formed  with  the  endings— 

arium,  etum,  turn,  He.1 

columb-arium,  a  dovecot,  from         columba,  dove. 

quere-etum,  a  forest  of  oaks,  quercus,  oak. 

sallc-tum,  a  thicket  of  willows,  sallx,  willow. 

ov-ile,  a  sheepfold,  ovis,  sheep. 

1.  Arium  designates  the  PLACE  where  anything  is  kept,  a  receptacle : 
aerdrium,  '  treasury/  from  acs,  money. 

2.  Stum,  turn,  used  with  names  of  trees  and  plants,  designate  the  PLACE 
where  they  flourish :  ollvetum,  l  an  olive-grove,'  from  ollva,  '  olive-tree.' 

3.  lie,  used  with  names  of  animals,  designates  their  STALL  or  FOLD  : 
bovile,  '  stall  for  cattle,'  from  bos,  stem  bov. 

4.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are — 

Aestu-drium,  'tidal  bay,'  from  aestus,  'tide' ;  avi-drium,  'aviary,'  from  avis, 
1  bird ' ;   don-drium,  '  place  for  offerings,'  from  donum,  '  gift ' ;  pom-drium, 

*  orchard,'  from  pomum,  '  fruit ' ;  aescul-etum,  '  forest  of  oaks,'  from  aesculus, 
1  oak ' ;  pln-etum,  '  pine-forest,'  from  plnus,  i  pine ' ;  ros-etum,  '  rose-bed,' 
from  rosa,  l  rose ' ;  mn-~etum,  *  vineyard,'  from  mnum,  '  vine ' ;  mrgut-tum, 

*  a  thicket,'  from  virgula,  '  bush ' ;  capr-lle,  '  goat-stall,'  from  caper,  *  goat.' 

324.  DERIVATIVES  are  also  formed  with  several  other  endings, 
especially  with — 

arms,  16,  ium,  itium,  ina,  imonium,  itas,  tus,  atus.2 
statu-arius,  a  statuary,          from        statua,  statue. 


miil-io,  muleteer, 

sacerdot-ium,  priesthood, 

serv-itium,  servitude, 

reg-ma,  queen, 

patr-imonium,  patrimony, 

clv-itas,  citizenship, 

vir-tus,  virtue, 

consul-atus,  consulship, 


mulus,  mule. 

sacerdos,  priest. 

servus,  slave. 

rex,  king. 

pater,  father. 

civis,  citizen. 

vir,  man. 

consul,  consul. 


1.  Arius  and  16  generally  designate  PERSONS  by  their  occupations. 

2.  Ium  and  itium  denote  OFFICE,  CONDITION,  or  COLLECTION  :  servitium, 
servitude,  sometimes  a  collection  of  servants. 

1  Arium  and  lie  are  the  endings  of  neuter  adjectives  used  substantively  (33O).    The 
vowels  a  and  I  were  probably  developed  out  of  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive,  but  they 
were  afterward  treated  as  a  part  of  the  suffix.    For  an  explanation  of  such  vowels,  see  33O, 
foot-note.    Many  derivative  endings  were  thus  formed  originally  by  the  union  of  certain 
suffixes  with  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive  ;  accordingly,  when  added  to  vowel  stems, 
they  generally  take  the  place  of  the  stem-vowel  :  colwmb-S,  columb-arium  ;  querc-o, 
querc-etum. 

2  Arius  is  identical  in  origin  with  the  adjective  ending  arius  (330),  and  dtus  with 
atus  in  participles.    In  each  the  initial  a  was  originally  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive. 
Ina  is  the  same  formation  as  the  adjective  ending  Inus  (330).    On  i-tium,  i-mowium, 
i-tas,  and  tus,  see  ti,  ta,  tu,  man,  mon,  with  foot-notes,  320  ;  remember  that  the  initial 
i  was  developed  from  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive. 


NOUNS.  161 

3.  Ina  and  imonium  are  used  with  some  variety  of  signification ;  see 
examples  under  7  below. 

4.  Itas  and  tus  designate  some  CHARACTERISTIC  or  CONDITION  :  hered-i- 
tas,  '  heirship/  from  heres,  '  heir ' ;  virtus,  '  manliness/  ' virtue,'  from  vir. 

6.  Atus  denotes  RANK,  OFFICE,  COLLECTION:  consulatus,  l consulship,' 
from  consul ;  senatus,  '  senate,7  l  collection  of  old  men/  from  senex. 

6.  For  PATRIAL  or  GENTILE  NOUNS,  see  331,  note  1. 

NOTE.— The  endings  ago,  Igo,  and  iigd1  also  occur:  vir-dgo,  'heroic  maiden,1  from 
ioir,  'hero1;  ferr-ugo,  'iron-rust,'  fromferrum,  'iron.' 

7.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are — 

Libr-drius, '  transcriber  of  books,'  from  liber,  '  book' ;  tign-arius,  'joiner/ 
from  Ugnum,  '  wood ' ;  quadrlg-drius,  '  driver  of  a  four-horse  chariot,'  from 
quadriga, l  four-horse  chariot' ;  arbitr-ium, '  decision/  from  arbiter,  '  arbiter' ; 
conjug-ium,  4  wedlock/  from  conjunx, '  spouse ' ;  magis-ter-ium, l  presidency/ 
from  magu-ter,  'president';  ds-tium,  'door/  from  os,  'mouth';  gall-ina, 
'hen/  from  gallus,  '  cock' ;  doctr-ina,  for  doctor-lna,  '  doctrine/  from  doctor, 
'learned  man/  'doctor';  mdtr-imonium,  'matrimony/  from  mater,  'moth- 
er ' ;  aedil-itds,  '  office  of  edile/  from  aedilis,  '  edile ' ;  auctar-itds,  '  authority/ 
from  auctor,  '  founder/  '  author ' ;  senec-tus,  '  old  age/  from  senex,  '  old  man ' ; 
tribun-dtiis,* '  office  of  tribune/  from  tribunus,  '  tribune.' 

II.  NOUNS  FKOM  ADJECTIVES. 

325.  From  Adjectives  are  formed  various  ABSTRACT  NOUNS 
with  the  endings — 

ia,  itia,  ta,  tas,  itas,  tus,  edo,  itiido,  imSnia.3 


diligent-ia, 

diligence,             frc 

>m        diligens, 

diligent. 

superb-ia, 

haughtiness, 

superbus, 

haugldy. 

amic-itia, 

friendship, 

amlcus, 

friendly. 

juven-ta, 

youth, 

juvenis, 

young. 

Hber-tas, 

freedom, 

h-ber, 

free. 

bon-itas, 

goodness, 

bonus, 

good. 

pi-etas,4 

piety, 

pius, 

pious. 

juven-tus, 

youth, 

juvenis, 

young. 

dulc-6do, 

sweetness, 

dulcis, 

sweet. 

sol-itudo, 

solitude, 

solus, 

alone. 

acr-imonia, 

sharpness, 

acer, 

sharp. 

1  These  endings  were  formed,  according  to  Corssen,  by  appending  the  suffix  an  to 
off,  the  root  of  ago,  to  put  in  motion,  make,  do ;  see  Corssen,  I.,  p.  57T. 

2  As  if  formed  from  a  verb,  tribund,  are,  like  equit-atus, '  cavalry,'  from  equito,  are, 
k  to  ride,1  from  eques, '  a  horseman.' 

3  When  appended  to  vowel  stems,  these  endings  take  the  place  of  the  final  vowel. 
Originally  the  initial  i  in  i-tia,  i-tds,  i-tiido,  and  i-monia  formed  no  part  of  the  suffix, 
but  represented  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive.    On  ia,  tia,  and  ta,  see  ja,  ti,  and  ta, 
320;  on  i-tds  and  tus,  see  page  160,  foot-note  2;  on  i-tudd  and  i-monia,  see  tu  and 
man,  32O.    The  origin  of  e-do,  e-din  is  obscure. 

*  For  pi-itas  by  dissimilation  (36). 


162 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


NOTE  1.— Instead  of  ia  and  itia,  ies  and  ities  occur:  pauper,  pauper-ies,  poverty; 
•  durus,  dur-itia  or  dur-ities,  hardness. 

NOTE  2.— Before  ids  the  stem  of  the  adjective  is  sometimes  slightly  changed :  facilis, 
facultds,  faculty ;  difficilis,  diffieultds,  difficulty ;  potent,  potestds,  power. 

NOTE  8.— A  few  adjectives  form  abstracts  with  both  itds  and  itudo :  Jirmus,  firm- 
itds,  firmitudo,  firmness.  Polysyllabic  adjectives  in  tus  often  suffer  contraction  before 
these  endings:  honestds  for  Tionest-itas,  'honesty,'  from  honestus;  sollicitudd,  for  sol- 
licit-itudd,  *  solicitude,1  from  sollicitus. 

1.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are — 

Auddc-ia,  boldness,'  from  auddx,  'bold' ;  just-itia,  *  justice,'  from  Justus, 
'just';  saev-itia,  'cruelty,'  from  saevus,  'cruel';  senec-ta,  'old  age,'  from 
senex,  '  old ' ;  aequdl-itds,  '  equality,'  from  aequdlis,  '  equal ' ;  cdr-itds,  '  dear- 
ness,'  from  cdrus, 4  dear ' ;  anxi-etds,  '  anxiety,'  from  auxins,  '  anxious ' ;  alt- 
itudo,  'height,'  from altus,  'high' ;  fort-Undo,  'bravery,'  from/or^,  'brave'; 
mdgn-ituddj  '  greatness,'  from  mdgnns,  '  great.' 

"III.  NOUNS  FROM  VERBS  AND  FROM  ROOTS. 
326.  From  the  Stems  of  Verbs  and  from  Roots  are  formed  nu- 
merous nouns  with  the  suffixes — * 

ter,  tor,2  trix,  trum,  tura,  tus,  tie,  16. 3 


pa-ter, 

father,          from  the  root     pa, 

to  protect. 

fra-ter, 

brother,                    "               bhra,  fra, 

to  support. 

amS-tor, 

lover, 

ama-re, 

to  love. 

audi-tor, 

hearer, 

audi-re, 

to  hear. 

defen-sor, 

defender, 

defend-ere, 

to  defend. 

vena-tor, 

hunter, 

vena-ri, 

to  hunt. 

vena-trix, 

huntress, 

u 

u 

guberna-trix, 

directress, 

guberna-re, 

to  direct. 

ara-trum, 

plough,                    ' 

ara-re, 

to  plough. 

ros-trum,4 

beak, 

rod-ere, 

to  gnaw. 

pic-tor, 

painter, 

ping-ere, 

to  paint. 

pic-tura, 

painting, 

u 

u-sura,6 

using,                                         ut-T, 

to  use. 

audi-tus, 

hearing,                                   audi-re, 

to  hear. 

Vl-SUS,5 

sight,                                        vid-ere, 

to  see. 

audl-tio, 

hearing,                                     audi-re, 

to  hear. 

moni-tio,6 

advising,                                  mone-re, 

to  advise. 

vl-sio,5 

seeing,                                      vid-ere, 

to  see. 

leg-io, 

a  selecting,                               leg-ere, 

to  select. 

occid-io, 

a  slaying,                                 occid-ere, 

to  slay. 

1  These  endings  appear  to  be  true  suffixes,  as  they  do  not  contain  the  stem-vowel  of 
the  primitive. 

2  For  the  phonetic  change  by  which  t  in  tor,  tura,  etc.,  unites  with  a  preceding  d  or 
t  and  produces  88  or  s,  as  in  def end-tor,  defender,  see  35,  8,  2). 

3  On  ter,  tor,  trix,  and  tura,  see  tar,  tra;  on  tus  and  Ho,  see  tu  and  ti;  and  ontd. 
see  ja,  32O. 

4  For  rdd-trum;  see  35,  8, 1). 

6  For  ut-tura,  vid-tus,  vid-tid;  see  35,  3,  2). 
6  From  stem  moni,  seen  in  moni-tum. 


NOUNS.  163 

1.  Ter,  tor,  and  trix  designate  the  AGENT  or  DOER  ;  trum,  the  MEANS 
of  the  action ;  and  tura,  tus,  ti6,  and  16,  the  ACT  itself ;  see  examples. 
But  nouns  in  tus  and  16  sometimes  become  concrete,  and  denote  the  RESULT 
of  the  action :  quaes-tits,  '  gain,*  from  quaes-ere,  '  to  gain  * ;  leg-id,  l  a  select- 
ing *  and  then  ' a  legion *  (the  men  selected),  from  leg-ere,  '  to  select ' ;  ex- 
erd-tus,  'exercise/  *  drill,7  and  then  'an  army*  (a  collection  of  trained 
men),  from  exerce-re,  '  to  exercise.' 

2.  Us,  a,  6 1  sometimes  designate  the  AGENT  of  the  action :  coqu-us  = 
coquus,  cook,  from  coqu-ere,  to  cook ;  scrib-a,  writer,  from  scrib-ere ;  err-b, 
wanderer,  from  err-are. 

NOTE  1. — Tor,  trlx,  tura,  and  tus  are  sometimes  added  to  noun  stems  with  or  with- 
out change :  ma-tor, '  traveler,1  from  via,  '  way ' ;  send-tor,  '  senator,'  from  seneao  (Geni- 
tive senis,  stem  sen),  'old  man 1 ;  jdni-tor,  'janitor,1  and  jdni-trfa,  'janitrix,1  from  jdn- 
ua,  'gate1;  litter  d-tur  a,  'writing,1  from  litter  a,  'letter1;  cdnsul-d-tus,  'consulship,1 
from  consul, '  consul.1 

NOTE  2.— For  nouns  in  id  from  the  stems  of  other  nouns,  see  324,  with  1. 

3.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are— 

Accusd-tor,  '  accuser,*  from  accusd-re,  '  to  accuse  * ;  curd-tor,  '  keeper,* 
from  curd-re,  '  to  take  care  of* ;  da-4or,  'giver,*  from  da-re,  'to  give* ;  vic- 
tor, '  victor,*  from  vinc-ere,*  '  to  conquer* ;  inven-trix,  '  a  female  discoverer,' 
from  inven-lre,  '  to  discover  * ;  monstrum  =  mon-es-trum,3  '  prodigy,*  from 
mon-ere,  '  to  admonish  * ;  rds-trum,  '  rake,*  from  rdd-ere,  *  to  rake,'  '  scrape ' ; 
armd-tura,  '  arming,'  '  equipment,'  from  armd-re, '  to  arm ' ;  nd-tura, '  birth,' 
4 nature,'  from  nd-scl,*  'to  be  born';  scrip-tura,  for  scrlb-tura,5  'writing,' 
from  scrib-ere,  '  to  write ' ;  dc-tus,  for  ag-tus,* '  driving,*  '  act,*  from  ag-ere,  '  to 
drive,*  '  act  * ;  dc-tid,  for  ag-tid,  '  action,*  from  ag-ere,  *  to  act ' ;  moni-tio,  '  act 
of  admonishing,*  from  morie-re,  'to  admonish* ;  mon-itus,  'admonition,'  from 
mone-re,  '  to  admonish ' ;  opln-w,  *  opinion,*  from  opin-dri,  '  to  think ' ;  opt- 
i6,  '  choice,'  from  opt-dre,  '  to  choose.* 

327.  From  the  Stems  of  Verbs  and  from  Roots  are  formed 
nouns  with  the  suffixes — 

or,  us,  es,  ies,  ium,  en,  men,  mentum,  monia,  monium,  bulum, 
culum,  brum,7  cram,  num.8 

1  0  and  d,  the  stems  of  us  and  a,  are  only  different  forms  of  the  suffix  a;  and  on,  the 
stem  of  6,  dnis,  is  from  the  suffix  an;  see  32O. 

Eoot  me. 

With  the  compound  suffix  es-trum,  from  as-tra;  see  as  and  tra,  320. 

Hoot  nd. 

See  33, 1. 

Observe  change  in  quantity:  ag-ere,  ac-tus\  see  Qellius,  IX.,  6. 

On  the  forms  bulum,  brum,  culum,  crum,  see  35,  2,  foot-note  8. 
8  On  or  (for  os),  us,  and  es,  see  as;  on  ies  and  ium,  see  ja;  on  en,  see  an;  on  men, 
mentum,  monia,  and  monium,  see  man  ;  on  num,  see  na — all  in  3/80 ;  on  bulum,  brum, 
citlum,  crum,  see  Corssen,  II.,  p.  40. 


164 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


am-or, 

love,                     from      am  -are, 

to  love. 

tim-or, 

fear, 

tim-ere, 

to  fear. 

gen-us, 

birth, 

gen  in  gign-ere, 

to  bear. 

frigus, 

cold. 

fng-ere,1 

to  be  cold. 

sed-es, 

seat, 

sed-ere,2 

to  sit. 

fac-ies, 

make,  face, 

fac-ere, 

to  make. 

gaud-ium, 

joy, 

gaud-ere, 

to  rejoice. 

stud-ium, 

zeal,  study, 

stud-ere, 

to  be  zealous. 

pect-en, 

a  comb, 

pect-ere, 

to  comb. 

flu-men, 

a  stream, 

flu-ere, 

to  flow. 

orna-mentum, 

ornament, 

orna-re, 

to  adorn. 

queri-monia, 

complaint, 

querl, 

to  complain. 

ali-monium, 

nourishment, 

ale-re, 

to  nourish. 

voca-bulum, 
vehi-culum, 

appellation, 
vehicle, 

voca-re, 
vehe-re, 

to  call, 
to  carry. 

delu-brum, 

shrine, 

delu-ere, 

to  cleanse. 

simula-crum, 

image, 

simula-re, 

to  represent. 

reg-num, 

reign, 

reg-ere, 

to  rule. 

1.  Or,  us,  es,  ies,  and  ium  generally  designate  the  ACTION  or  STATE 
denoted  by  the  verb,  but  es,  ies,  and  ium  sometimes  designate  the  RESULT 
of  the  action :  aedifcium,  '  edifice,'  from  aedific-are,  l  to  build.' 

2.  Men,  mentum,  monia,  monium,  and  num.  generally  designate  the 
MEANS  of  the  action,  or  its  involuntary  SUBJECT,  sometimes  the  ACT  itself, 
or  its  RESULT:  flu-men,  l  a  stream,'  'something  which  flows,'  from  flu-ere  ; 
ag-men,  i  an  army  in  motion,'  from  ag-ere. 

NOTE.— The  stem  or  root  is  sometimes  shortened  or  changed :  mo-mentum,  'moving 
force,'  from  mov-ere. 

3.  Bulum,  culum,  brum,  and  crum  designate  the  INSTRUMENT  or  the 
PLACE  of  the  action :   vehi-culum,  *  vehicle '  (instrument  of  the  action), 
from  vehc-re  ;  sta-bulum, '  stall '  (place  of  the  action),  from  sta-re. 

NOTE.— -The  vowel  of  the  stem  is  sometimes  changed :  sepul-crum, '  sepulchre,1  from 
sepal-Ire,  'to  bury1;  see  24,  8. 

4.  In  culum,  c  is  dropped  after  c  and  g :  vinc-ulum,  4  a  bond,'  from 
vine-Ire  ;  rcg-ula,  '  rule,'  from  reg-ere. 

NOTE.— Do,  la,  dgb^  igd,*  and  a  few  other  endings  also  occur:  torpe-do,  'numbness,1 
from  torpe-re,  'to  be  numb1;  cupl-db,  'desire,1  from  cupe-re,  'to  desire*;  cande-la, 
'  candle,1  from  cande-re,  '  to  shine 1 ;  vor-agb, '  whirlpool,1  from  vor~are, '  to  swallow  up ? ; 
vert-lffd, '  a  turn,1  from  vert-ere> '  to  turn.* 

5.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are — 

Splend-or,  4  brightness,'  from  splend-ere,  '  to  be  bright ' ;  op-us,  *  work,' 
from  the  root  op  for  ap,  '  work ' ;  dec-us,  l  ornament,'  from  root  dec,  in  dec-et, 

1  In  several  of  these  examples  the  noun  is  not  strictly  derived  from  the  verb,  but 
both  noun  and  verb  are  formed  from  one  common  root,  as  frlg-w  and  frlg-ere  from  the 
root  frig. 

2  Sed-ere  and  sed-es  show  a  variable  root-vowel— e,  e  ;  see  20,  note  2. 
8  Bee  Corssen,  I.,  p.  577 ;  II.,  pp.  I 


ADJECTIVES.  165 

'it  is  becoming ';  nub-es,  'cloud,'  from  the  root  nub  in  nub-ere,  'to  veil'; 
spec-its,  l  look,'  from  spec-ere,  {  to  look ' ;  effug-ium,  *  escape,'  from  effug-ere, 
4  to  escape ' ;  imper-ium,  '  command,'  from  imper-dre,  l  to  command ' ;  certd- 
men,  '  contest,'  from  certd-re,  '  to  contend ' ;  docu-mentum,1  '  lesson,'  ;  docu- 
ment,' from  doce-re,  *  to  teach ' ;  nutrl-mentum,  *  nourishment,'  from  nutrl-re, 
*  to  nourish ' ;  pd-bulum,  '  fodder,'  from  the  root  £?&  in  pd-scere,  '  to  feed ' ; 
spectd-culum,  '  sight,'  from  spectd-re,  l  to  behold ' ;  lu-crum,  l  gain,'  from 
lu-ere,  '  to  pay' ;  do-num,1  '  gift,'  from  the  root  ^a  in  da-re,  '  to  give.' 

FOKMATIOK    OF   ADJECTIVES   BY    SUFFIXES. 
I.  ADJECTIVES  FROM  NOUNS. 

328.  FULLNESS. — Adjectives  denoting  fullness,  abundance,  sup- 
ply, generally  end  in — 

osus,    cdsns,    lens,    lentus,    tns.2 

anim-osus,  full  of  courage,        from        animus,  spirit,  courage. 

fructu-osus,  fruitful,  fructus,  fruit. 

belli-cosus,  warlike,  bellum,  war. 

pesti-lens,  pestilential,  "           pestis,  pest. 

pesti-lentus,                  «  "                   « 

vmo-lentus,  full  of  wine,  vmum,  wine. 

fraudu-lentus,  fraudulent,  fraus,  fraud. 

ala-tus,  winged,  ala,  wing. 

turri-tus,  turreted,  turris,  turret. 

cornu-tus,  horned,  cornu,  horn. 

jus-tus,  just,  "           jus,  right. 

NOTE.— Before  osus  the  stem-vowel  is  generally  dropped,  but  u  is  retained:  animo- 
csus,  anim-osus,  but  fructu-osus. 

1.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are — 

Ann-osus,  4  full  of  years,'  from  annus,  *  year ' ;  luxuri-osus,  *  luxurious,' 
from  luxuria, '  luxury ' ;  pericul-dsm, l  dangerous,'  from  perlculum,  *  danger ' ; 
tenebr-oms  and  tenebri-cosus,  l  gloomy,'  from  tenebrae,  *  gloom ' ;  turbu-lentm, 
Riotous,'  from  turba,  ^iot';  latbd-tus,  ' bearded,'  from  barba,  'beard'; 
aurl-tus,  '  long  eared,'  from  auris,  l  ear ' ;  onus-tus,  l  burdened,'  from  onus, 
1  burden.' 

329.  MATERIAL. — Adjectives  designating  the  material  of  which 
anything  is  made  generally  end  in — 

1  With  modified  stem  or  root:  doce,  docu;  da,  do. 

3  On  osus,  see  Schleicher,  p.  403;  Corssen,  I.,  p.  62;  II.,  p.  688.  Cosus  is  from  co 
and  osus;  thus  from  lettum,  'war,1  is  formed  leHi-cus,  'belonging  to  war';  and  from 
belli-cus  is  formed  bellico-osus,  belli-ccsus,  *  warlike.'  On  lens,  lentils,  see  ra,  la,  330. 
The  vowel  before  Un^  lentus— generally  u,  sometimes  o  or  i— was  originally  the  stem- 
vowel  of  the  primitive,  as  in  vmo-lentus,  pesti-lens,  pesti-lentus,  but  it  was  sometimes 
treated  as  a  part  of  the  suffix:  vi-olentus,  'violent,'  from  vis,  'force.'  Tus  is  identical 
with  tus  in  the  passive  participle,  and  when  added  to  vowel-stems  is  preceded  by  a,  l% 
or  u :  dld-tus,  turri-tus,  cornu-tus,  tike  amd-tus,  audl-tus*  aeu-tus  ('  sharpened,'  from 
acu-o,  '  to  sharpen').  It  may,  however,  be  added  to  consonant-stems :  jus-tut. 


166 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


eus,  nus,  neus,  aceus,  icius.1 


aur-eus, 

argent-eus, 

fag-eus, 

fagi-nus,a 

fagi-neus,* 

popul-nus,3 

popul-neus,3 

papyr-aceus, 

later-icius, 


golden, 
of  silver, 
of  beech, 


of  poplar, 

of  papyrus, 
of  brick, 


from 


aurum, 

argentum, 

fagus, 


populus, 
u 

papyrus, 
later, 


gold, 
silver. 
a  beech. 


a  poplar. 

u 

papyrus. 


NOTE. — These  endings  sometimes  denote  characteristic  or  possession :  mrgineus, 
'  belonging  to  a  maiden.' 


330.  CHAKACTEKISTIC. — Adjectives  signifying  belonging  to,  de- 
rived from,  generally  end  in — 

cus,  icus,  alls,  ills,  anus,  Inus,  aris,  arius,  ins,  ensis.4 


civi-cus, 

relating  to  a  citizen, 

from 

civis, 

citizen. 

patr-icus, 

paternal, 

u 

pater, 

father. 

natur-alis, 

natural, 

II 

natura, 

nature. 

mort-alis, 

mortal, 

1C 

mors, 

death. 

host-ills, 

hostile, 

u 

hostis, 

enemy. 

clv-ilis, 

relating  to  a  citizen, 

« 

civis, 

citizen. 

oppid-Snus, 

of  the  town, 

u 

oppidum, 

town. 

urb-anus, 

of  the  city, 

it 

urbs, 

city. 

mar-mus, 

marine, 

n 

mare, 

sea. 

equ-mus, 

of,  pertaining  to  a  horse, 

« 

equus, 

horse. 

lun-aris, 

lunar, 

u 

lima, 

moon. 

salut-aris, 

salutary, 

(( 

salus, 

safety. 

auxili-arius, 

auxiliary, 

(( 

auxilium, 

aid. 

reg-ius, 

royal, 

(t 

rex, 

Icing. 

orator-ius, 

of  an  orator, 

t< 

orator,5 

orator. 

for-ensis, 

forensic, 

« 

forum, 

forum. 

1  On  eus,  stem  eo,  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  342-346;  Bopp,  III.,  p.  429;  on  nus,  see 
na,  3/80.  Neus  adds  eus  to  no,  seen  in  nus;  aceus  adds  eus  to  ac,  seen  in  ax  (333, 
foot-note  2) ;  and  ic-ius  adds  ius  to  ic  or  ieo;  seeja,  330,  and  icus,  330. 

3  Stem -vowel  changed  to  i  before  nus  and  neus. 

3  Stem-vowel  dropped  before  nus  and  neus. 

4  On  cus,  see  ka,  33O.   In  i-cus,  i  was  originally  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive,  but 
was  finally  treated  as  a  part  of  the  suffix,  as  in  patr-icus.    In  the  same  way  the  vowels 
a  and  I  in  att*,  His,  dris,  drius,  dnus,  and  Inus  were  developed  from  the  stem-vowels 
of  the  primitives ;  thus  in  such  words  as  doc-i-lis,  '  docile,'  from  doc-e-re,  the  suffix 
seems  to  have  been  originally  Us,  but  at  length  the  preceding  i  was  treated  as  a  part  of 
the  suffix,  making  iHs.    If  now  His  be  added  to  hosti,  the  stem  of  Tiostis,  we  shall  have 
hosti-ilis  =  host-Uis ;  or,  with  Corssen,  we  may  suppose  that  from  hostis  was  formed 
the  verb  Tiostl-re,  and  that  the  ending  Us  was  added  directly  to  hostl,  making  hostl~Us. 
The  long  initial  vowel  in  other  endings  is  supposed  to  have  had  a  similar  origin.    Alis, 
His,  and  dris  are  virtually  the  same  suffix,  as  I  and  r  are  interchangeable ;  see  ra,  la, 
foot-note,  32O.    Arius  =  dri-ius.    On  dnus,  Inus,  and  ius,  see  ja  and  na,  320;  on 
ensis,  see  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  62,  254;  II.,  pp.  6S8,  719. 

6  But  ora-tor  is  formed  from  ord-re  by  adding  tor  to  the  stem ;  see  326. 


ADJECTIVES.  167 

1.  Ester  or  estris,1  timus,  itimus,  ticus,2  cinus,  and  a  few  other  end- 
ings occur :  terr-ester  or  terr-estris,  '  terrestrial,'  from  terra,  '  earth  * ;  mari- 
time, '  maritime/  from  mare,  ' sea ' ;  leg-itimus,  ' lawful,'  from  lex,  legis, 
'  law ' ;   rus-ticus,  l  rustic,'   from  rus,  '  country ' ;    vctti-tinus,   '  prophetic,' 
from  vates,  l  prophet.' 

2.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are— 

Domini-cus,  l  of  a  master,'  from  dominus,  l  master ' ;  serv-itis,  '  slavish,* 
from  servus,  '  slave ' ;  vir-llis,  '  manly,'  from  mr,  '  man ' ;  capit-dlis,  l  of  the 
head,'  '  capital,'  from  caput,  '  head ' ;  reg-dlis,  '  kingly,'  from  rex,  '  king ' ; 
consul-dris,  '  consular,'  from  consul,  l  consul ' ;  mllit-dris,  '  military,'  from 
miles,  'soldier';  agr-drius,  'of  or  relating  to  land,'  from  affer,  'field';  ar- 
gent-driiis,  'of  silver,'  from  argentum,  'silver';  can-inus,  'of  a  dog,'  from 
canis,  '  dog ' ;  lup-inus,  '  of  a  wolf,'  from  lupus,  '  wolf ;  mont-dnus,  '  of  a 
mountain,'  from  mdns,  '  mountain ' ;  nox-ius,  '  injurious,'  from  noxa,  '  in- 
jury ' ;  patr-ius,  '  of  a  father,'  from  pater,  'father' ;  imperdtdr-ius,  '  of  a  com- 
mander,' from  hnperdtor,  '  commander.' 

33 1 .  Adjectives  from  proper  nouns  generally  end  in — 
anus,  ianus,  inus  ;  ius,  iacus,  icus ;  ensis,  iensis  ;  as,  aeus,  eus.3 


Sull-anus, 

of  Sulla,            f  re 

m        Sulla, 

Sulla. 

Rom-Snus, 

Roman, 

Roma, 

Rome. 

Mari-anus, 

of  Marius, 

Marius, 

Marius. 

Ciceron-ianus, 

Ciceronian, 

Cicero, 

Cicero. 

Lat-mus,2 

Latin, 

Latium, 

Latium. 

Plaut-mus, 

of  Plautus, 

Plautus, 

Plautus. 

Corinth-ius, 

Corinthian, 

Corinthus, 

Corinth. 

Corinth-iacus, 

it 

u 

M 

Britann-icus, 

JBritish, 

Britannus, 

a  Briton. 

Cann-ensis, 

of  Cannae, 

Cannae, 

Cannae. 

Athen-iensis, 

Athenian, 

Athenae, 

Athens. 

Flden-as, 

of  Fidenae, 

Fidenae, 

Fidenae. 

Smyrn-aeus, 

Smyrnean, 

Smyrna, 

Smyrna. 

Pythagor-eus, 

Pythagorean, 

Pythagoras, 

Pythagoras. 

1.  Anus  and  ianus  are  the  endings  generally  used  in  derivatives  from 
Names  of  Persons  ;  but  others  also  occur. 

NOTE  1. — Many  of  these  adjectives  from  names  of  places  are  also  used  substantiveiy 
as  Patrial  or  Gentile  Nouns  to  designate  the  citizens  of  the  place :  Corinthil,  the  Co- 
rinthians; Athenienses,  the  Athenians. 

NOTE  2.— The  Eoman  Gmtes  or  clans  were  all  designated  by  adjectives  in  ius,  as 
gens  Cornelia,  gens  Julia. 

1  The  ending  ester  or  estris  may  be  formed  by  adding  ter  or  tris  to  es  from  the  suffix 
as  (330);  but  see  Corssen,  II.,  p.  549. 

2  On  ti-mus,  i-ti-mus,  and  ti-cus,  see  fa,  ma,  c#,  3 SO. 

3  When  appended  to  vowel  stems,  these  endings  take  the  place  of  the  stem-vowel: 
Sull~anm.    In  fact,  anus  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  stem-vowel  with  the  suffix.    Bo 
In  Mari-anus,  but  in  examples  like  this  the  i  before  anus  was  finally  treated  as  a  part 
of  the  suffix,  making  ianus,  as  seen  in  Ciceron-ianus.    Inus  in  Lat-inue  contains  *V>, 
from  Lat-io,  the  stem  of  Latium. 


168  DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 

NOTE  8.— An  adjective  in  ius,  used  substantively,  formed  a  part  of  the  name  of  every 
distinguished  Koman,  and  designated  the  yens  to  which  he  belonged;  see  Roman  Names, 
649. 

II.  ADJECTIVES  FROM  ADJECTIVES. 

332.  DIMINUTIVES  from  other  adjectives  generally  end  like 
diminutive  nouns  (321)  in — 

lus,  ulus,  culus.1 

ebrio-lus,  somewhat  drunken,  from  ebrius,  drunken. 

aureo-lus,  golden,  aureus,  golden. 

long-ulus,  rather  long,  "  longus,  long. 

pauper-culus,  rather  poor,  "  pauper,  poor. 

NOTE  1.— The  endings  ellus  and  illus  also  occur  as  in  nouns  (321,  4) :  nov-ellua, 
'new,'  from  novus,  'new.' 

NOTE  2.- -Culus  is  sometimes  added  to  comparatives:  duriw-culus,  'somewhat 
hard,'  from  durior,  durius,  'harder.' 

III.  ADJECTIVES  FROM  VERBS  AND  FROM  ROOTS. 

333.  Verbal  adjectives  generally  end  in — 

bundus,  cundus,  dus;   bills,  tills,  sills,  Us;   ax.2 

mira-bundus,  wondering,  from        mira-ri,  to  wonder. 

inori-bundus,  dying,  "            mori,  to  die. 

vere-cundus,  diffident,  vere-rT,  to  fear. 

cali-dus,  warm,  cale-re,  to  be  warm. 

pavi-dus,  fearful,  pave-re,  to  fear. 

ama-bilis,  worthy  of  love,  ama-re,  to  love. 

duc-tilis,  ductile,  "           duc-ere,  to  lead. 

flexilisf'3  1  J***1***'  "  flect-ere,  to  turn. 

doci-lis,  docile,  doce-re,  to  teach. 

pugn-ax,  pugnacious,  pugna-re,  tofyht. 

aud-5x,  daring,  "  aude-re,  to  dare. 

1.  Bundus  and  cundus  have  nearly  the  force  of  the  present  participle ; 
but  bundus  is  somewhat  more  expressive  than  the  participle :  laeta-bundus, 
rejoicing  greatly ;  and  cundus  generally  denotes  some  characteristic  rather 
than  a  single  act  or  feeling :  vere-cundus,  diffident. 

2.  Dus  retains  the  simple  meaning  of  the  verb. 

3.  Bills,  tills,  sills,  and  lis  denote  CAPABILITY,  generally  in  a  passive 
sense :  amabilis,  capable  or  worthy  of  being  loved ;  sometimes  in  an  active 
sense :  terribilis,  terrible,  capable  of  producing  terror. 

1  See  p.  158,  foot-note  6. 

2  Bundus  is  explained  by  Corssen  and  others  as  formed  by  appending  undue,  endue, 
the  Gerundive  suffix,  to  bu  —fu,  as  seen  in  ful ;  cundus,  by  adding  the  same  suffix  to 
co  (ka,  320);  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  310-312.    On  dus,  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  302,  303;  on 
li»,  see  ra,  la,  320;  and  on  oiUs,  32O,  foot-note  1 ;  also  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  166-169;  on  tilis 
and  sili8,  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  41,  826.    The  ending  ax  =  d-c-s  is  for  d-co-8,  in  which  d  was 
originally  the  stem-vowel  of  an  d-verb :  thus  pugn-a-co-8  becomes  pugnd-cs,  pugndw. 

»  Flec-9itt8=flect-tiU8;  see  35,  8,  2). 


VERBS.  169 

4.  Ax  denotes  INCLINATION,  generally  a  faulty  one :  loquax,  loquacious. 
6.  Cus,  Icus,  iicus,  vus,  uus,  ivus,  tivus,  tlcius,  ius,  and  ulus l  also 
occur : 

Medi-cm,  l  healing,'  '  medical,'  from  mede-rl,  l  to  heal ' ;  am-lcus,  l  friend- 
ly,' from  am-dre,  '  to  love ' ;  cad-ucus,  '  falling,'  '  inclined  to  fall,'  from  cad- 
ere,  *  to  fall ' ;  sal-mis,  '  safe,'  from  root  sal,  4  whole,'  l  sound ' ;  noc-uus  and 
noc-ivus,  4  hurtful,'  from  noc-ere,  t  to  hurt ' ;  cap-tlvus,  *  captive,'  from  cap-ere, 
'-  to  take ' ;  ficticius,  forjig-ticius,  l  feigned,'  from  Jiff,  the  root  offing-ere,  '  to 
form,'  4 fashion,'  ' feign';  exim-ius,  'select,'  4 choice,'  from  exim-ere,  'to 
select  out ' ;  cred-ulus,  c  credulous,'  from  cr~ed-ere,  '  to  believe.' 

6.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are — 

Ludi-bundus,  'sportive,'  'playful,'  from  lude-re,  'to  play';  rldi-lundus, 
'  laughing,'  from  ride-re,  '  to  laugh ' ;  fa-cundus,  '  eloquent,'  from  fd-ri,  '  to 
speak ' ;  ju-cundus,  for  juv-cundus,  '  pleasant,'  from  juv-are,  '  to  aid,'  '  de- 
light ' ;  am-dus,  '  greedy,'  from  ave-re,  '  to  long  for ' ;  cupi-dus,  '  desirous,' 
from  cupe-re,  '  to  desire ' ;  timi-dus,  '  timid,'  from  time-re,  '  to  fear ' ;  faci-lis, 
'  easy,'  '  capable  of  being  done,'  from  face-re,  'to  do ' ;  nubi-lis,  '  marriage- 
able,' from  nube-re,  '  to  marry ' ;  uti-lis,  '  useful,'  from  utl,  '  to  use ' ;  credi- 
bilis,  '  credible,'  from  crede-re, '  to  believe ' ;  terri-Ulis,  '  terrible,'  from  terre- 
re,  '  to  terrify ' ;  laudd-bilis,  '  praiseworthy,'  from  laudd-re,  '  to  praise ' ;  fer- 
tilis,  'fertile,'  tiomfer-re,  'to  bear';  cap-ax,  'capacious,'  from  cap-ere,  'to 
take ' ;  ten-ax,  '  tenacious,'  from  ten-ere,  '  to  hold.' 

IV.  ADJECTIVES  FROM  ADVERBS  AND  PREPOSITIONS. 

334.  A  few  adjectives  are  formed  from  adverbs  and  preposi- 
tions : 2 

cras-tinus,  of  to-morrow,  from          eras,  to-morrow. 

contra-rius,  contrary,  contra,  against. 

inter-nus,  internal,  inter,  among,  within. 

super-bus,  haughty,  super,  above. 

super-nus,  upper, 

FORMATION"    OF    VERBS    BY    SUFFIXES. 
I.  VERBS  FROM  NOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES. 

335.  Verbs  formed  from  nouns  and  adjectives  are  called  DE- 
NOMINATIVES.    They  end  in — 

CONJ.  I.  CONJ.  II.  CONJ.    III.  COKJ.  IV. 

0,  a-re,  eO,  e-re,  uo,  ue-re,3  io,  i-re.4 

1  Vus,  uus,  and  l-vus  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same  suffix ;  uus  was  formed  by 
vocalizing  v  in  <vus;  i-vus,  by  adding  vus  to  the  stem-vowel  I;  noc-i-vus,  as  if  from  a 
verb,  noc-lre  =  noc-ere.    The  other  endings  are  composed  of  elements  Already  explained. 

2  But  adverbs  and  prepositions  are  in  origin  case-forms;  see  304;  307,  note  1. 

3  Conjugation  III.  contains  primitive  verbs  with  a  few  derivatives. 

4  According  to  Curtius  and  others,  the  suffix  which  was  added  tc  the  stems  of  nouns 
and  adjectives  to  form  verbs  was  originally  ja,  pronounced  ya,  probably  identical  with  i, 


170 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


cur-o, 

a-re, 

to  care  for,      u        f  r( 

>m        cur-a, 

care. 

fug-6, 

5-re, 

to  put  to  flight. 

fug-a, 

flight. 

pugn-6, 

a-re, 

to  fight, 

pugn-a, 

battle. 

bell-6, 

a-re, 

to  carry  on  war, 

bell-um, 

war. 

don-o, 

a-re, 

to  give, 

don-urn, 

gift. 

firm-6, 

a-re, 

to  make  firm. 

firm-us, 

firm. 

labor  -6, 

a-re, 

to  labor, 

labor, 

labor. 

llber-o, 

a-re, 

to  liberate, 

liber, 

free. 

nomin-o, 

a-re, 

to  name, 

nomen, 

name. 

alb-eo, 

e-re, 

to  be  white, 

alb-us, 

white. 

clar-6, 

a-re, 

to  make  bright, 

clar-us, 

bright. 

clar-eo, 

e-re, 

to  be  bright, 

u 

u 

flor-eo, 

e-re, 

to  bloom, 

flos, 

flower. 

luc-eo, 

e-re, 

to  shine, 

lux=luc-s, 

light. 

met-uo, 

ue-re, 

to  fear, 

met-us, 

fear. 

Btat-uo, 

ue-re, 

to  place, 

stat-us, 

position. 

fm-io, 

i-re, 

to  finish, 

fin-is, 

end. 

moll-I6, 

I-re, 

to  soften, 

moll-is, 

soft. 

vest-io, 

i-re, 

to  clothe, 

vest-is, 

garment. 

serv-io, 

I-re, 

to  serve, 

serv-us, 

servant. 

custod-io, 

I-re, 

to  guard, 

custOs, 

guardian. 

NOTE  1. — Denominatives  of  the  second  conjugation  are  intransitive,  but  most  of  the 
others  are  transitive. 

NOTE  2.— Derivatives,  like  other  verbs,  may  of  course  be  deponent :  dominor,  dri, '  to 
domineer,'  from  dominus,  'master1;  miror,  drl,  'to  wonder  at,'  from  mlrus,  'wonder- 
ful'; partior,  iri,  'to  part,'  'divide,'  from  pars,  partis,  'part.' 

1.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are— 

Gulp-are,  l  to  find  fault,'  from  culp-a,  *  fault ' ;  gttri-arl,  c  to  boast,' c  glory,' 
from  glori-a, l  glory ' ;  non-are,  4  to  make  new,'  from  novus,  l  new ' ;  regn-dre, 
*  to  reign,'  from  regnum,  4  royal  power ' ;  lev-are,  4  to  lighten,'  from  levis, 
4  light';  honor-are,  l  to  honor,'  from  honor,  *  honor';  laud-are,  'to  praise,' 
from  laus  —  laud-s,  l  praise  ' ;  saev-lre,  c  to  be  fierce,'  from  saevus,  '  fierce.' 

the  root  of  i-re,  'to  go.'  This  suffix  added  to  a,  the  original  stem- vowel  of  most  nouns 
and  adjectives,  formed  a-ja,  still  preserved  in  the  ending  ajd-mi  in  a  large  class  of  San- 
skrit verbs.  From  this  compound  suffix  aja  are  derived  in  Latin,  in  the  first  conjuga- 
tion, (1)  aO,  contracted  to  0:  cur-0  =  cur-ajo  for  cur-ao  for  cur-aja;  (2)  d:  cur-d-s, 
shortened  to  a  in  cur-a-t  for  cur-d-t;— in  the  second  conjugation,  (1)  eo:  luc-eo  for  luc- 
ejo  for  luc-aja;  (2)  e:  luc-e-s,  shortened  to  e  in  luc-e-t  for  luc-e-t;  and  in  the  fourth 
conjugation,  (1)  io  and  iu :  serv-io  for  serv-ijo  for  serv-aja,  serv-iu-nt  for  &erv-iju-nt 
for  serv-aju-nt ;  and  (2)  1:  serv-l-8,  shortened  to  i  in  serv-i-t  for  serv-l-t;  see  Bopp,  I., 
pp.  207-229 ;  Curtius,  Verbum,  1^  pp.  292,  326-348 ;  Schleicher,  pp.  358-361.  For  an  ob- 
jection to  this  explanation  of  the  a-verbs,  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  783-736.— On  final  0  of  the 
first  person,  see  247, 1,  foot-note  5.— The  suffix  ja,  added  to  original  i-stems,  formed  ija 
and  gave  rise  to  i-verbs :  flniO  =fln-i-jO  -=fln-ifa ;  and  added  to  u-stems,  it  formed 
u-ja  and  gave  rise  to  u-verbs :  met-uo  =  met-u-jd  =  met-iya. — In  general,  a-stems  give 
rise  to  a-verbs :  cur-a,  cur-d-re ;  o-stems,  sometimes  to  a-verbs,  sometimes  to  e-verbs, 
and  sometimes  to  i-xerbs :  firmus,  stem  fir  mo,  Jwin-d-re  ;  albus,  stem  alb-o,  alb-e-re  ; 
servus,  stem  serv-o,  serv-l-re  ;  consonant  stems,  to  a-verbs,  e-verbs,  or  i-verbs,  after  the 
analogy  of  vowel  stems  :  labor  for  labor,  labor-d-re;  fids,  fldr~e-re  for  flos-e-re  (31, 1); 
ewtos,  stem  custdd,  cwtod-l-re. 


VERBS.  171 

II.  VERBS  FROM  VERBS.1 

336.  FREQUENTATIYES    or   INTENSIVES  denote   repeated,   con- 
tinued, or  intense  action.     They  are  generally  of  the  first  conjuga- 
tion, and  are  formed — 

I.  From  the  stem  of  the  participle 2  in  tus  or  sus : 

cant-6,  are,  to  sing,  from  cantus  from  cano,     to  sing.3 

capt-o,  are,  to  snatch,  "  captus  capio,     to  take. 

dat-o,  are,  to  give  often,  "  datus  do,         to  give. 

habit-6,  are,  to  inhabit,  "  habitus  habeo,   to  have. 

quass-6,  are,  to  shake  violently,      "  quassus  quatio,  to  shake. 

territ-o,  are,  to  frighten  often,      "  territus  terreo,   to  frighten. 

II.  From  the  present  stem,  by  adding  to  and  changing  the  preceding 
vowel  to  i,  if  not  already  in  that  form : 4 

agi-to,  are,  to  shake,  from          ago,  to  move,  lead. 

clami-to,  are,  to  shout  often,  clamo,  to  shout. 

rogi-to,  are,  to  ask  eagerly,  rogo,  to  ask. 

voci-to,  are,  to  call  often,  vqco,  to  call. 

voli-to,  are,  to  flit  about,  "             volo,  to  fly. 

NOTB  1.— Frequentatives  are  sometimes  formed  from  other  frequentatives : 5  cantito, 
'to  sing  often,'  from  canto  from  cano;  dictito,  4to  say  often,'  from  dicto  from  dlcO. 

NOTE  2.— A  few  derivatives  in  esso  and  isso  also  occur.  They  are  intensive  in  force, 
denoting  earnest  rather  than  repeated  action,  and  are  of  the  third  conjugation :  faciOt 
facesso, '  to  do  earnestly ' ;  incipio,  incipissO, '  to  begin  eagerly.' 

1.  OTHER  EXAMPLES  are — 

Dicto,  '  to  say  often,'  from  died,  '  to  say ' ;  specto,  l  to  behold/  from  specio, 
'to  look  at' ;  factito,  'to  do  often,'  from  facia,  'to  do,'  'make';  imperitO, 
*  to  command  often,'  from  impero,  l  to  command ' ;  rapid,  l  to  snatch,'  from 
rapid,  4  to  seize.' 

337.  INCEPTIVES  or  INCHOATIVES  denote  the  beginning  of  the 
action.     They  are  of  the  third  conjugation,  and  end  in  sco  : 

1  Either  directly  or  through  the  medium  of  nouns,  adjectives,  or  participles. 

2  They  are  thus  strictly  denominatives  (335).    Intransitive  verbs,  though  without 
the  participle  in  tus  or  sus,  may  form  frequentatives  after  the  analogy  of  transitive 
verbs :  curst),  are, '  to  run  about,'  formed  as  if  from  cursus  from  currO,  '  to  run ' ;  venf 
tito,  are, '  to  come  often,'  formed  as  if  from  ventus,  from  venio,  '  to  come.1 

8  Eemember  that  the  stem  of  the  participle  ends  in  o  ;  thus  cantus  =  canto-s.  Ob- 
serve, therefore,  that  the  verb  canto,  *  I  sing,'  is  in  form  like  the  stem  of  the  participle. 
Canto  was,  however,  originally  produced  by  adding  ja  to  canta,  the  original  stem  of 
cantus,  making  canta-ja,  cantajo,  cantaO,  canto;  see  also  335,  foot-note. 

4  The  formation  from  the  participle  was  doubtless  the  original  method,  but  at  length 
to  was  regarded  as  the  suffix,  and  was  accordingly  added  to  present  stems,  and  as  in  many 
cases  i  preceded,  the  stem-vowel  finally  took  this  form  before  the  suffix  to  ;  see  Corssen, 
II.,  p.  29T. 

5  Sometimes  from  frequentatives  no  longer  in  use :  actito,  *  to  act  often,1  as  if  from 
dcto,  not  in  use,  from  ago ;  scrlpUto,  '  to  write  often,'  as  if  from  scrlpto,  not  in  use, 
from  scrlbo. 


172  COMPOSITION  OF  WORDS. 

gel-a-sco,  to  begin  to  freeze,       from     gel-6,  a-re,     to  freeze. 


cal-e-sco,  to  become  warm, 

rub-e-sco,  to  grow  red, 

vir-e-sco,  to  grow  green, 

trem-i-sco,  to  begin  to  tremble, 

obdorm-1-sco,  to  fall  asleep, 


cal-eo,  e-re,  to  be  warm. 

rub-eo,  e-re,  to  be  red. 

vir-eo,  e-re,  to  be  green. 

trem-6,  e-re,  to  tremble. 

obdorm-io,  I-re,  to  sleep. 


338.  DESIDEBATIVES  denote  a  desire  to  perform  the  action. 
They  are  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  end  in  turio  or  surio : 

par-turio,     Ire,      to  strive  to  bring  forth,      from      pario,      to  bring  forth. 
e-surio,        ire,      to  desire  to  eat,  u         edo,         to  eat.1 

339.  DIMINUTIVES  denote  a  feeble  action.2    They  are  of  the  first 
conjugation,  and  end  in  illo : 

cant-illo,  to  sing  feebly,       from      canto,  to  sing. 

conscrlb-illo,       to  scribble,  "          conscribo,      to  write. 

NOTE. — For  the  DERIVATION  OF  ADVEBBS,  see  304. 
SECTION    III. 

COMPOSITION    OF    WORDS. 

340.  New  words  may  be  formed — 

I.  By  the  union  of  two  or  more  words  under  one  principal  accent, 
without  change  of  meaning : 

Ifts  publica,  respublica,  republic ;  agrl  cultura,  agrlcultura,  agriculture ; 
juris  consultus,  jurisconsultus,  lawyer,  one  skilled  in  the  law  ;  quern  ad  mo- 
dum,  quemadmodum,  in  what  way — lit.,  to  what  measure. 

NOTE. — These  are  compounds  only  in  form.  The  separate  words  retain  in  a  great 
measure  their  identity  both  in  form  and  in  meaning,  and  may  in  fact  be  written  separately. 
Res  publica  is  the  approved  form.  Other  examples  of  this  class  are :  legis-ldtor,  law- 
giver; pater-familids,  father  of  a  family;  sendttis-cdnsultum,  decree  of  the  senate;  hdc- 
tenus,  thus  far;  saepe-numero,  often  in  number;  fiene-facio,  to  do  well,  benefit;  male- 
dico,  to  revile;  satis-facio,  to  satisfy,  do  enough  for;  animum-ad-verto,  anim-ad-vertd, 
to  notice,  turn  the  mind  to. 

II.  By  prefixing  an  indeclinable  particle  to  an  inflected  word, 
generally  with  some  change  of  meaning : 

Ad-sum,  to  be  present ;  de-pono,  to  lay  down  ;  re-pond,  to  replace  ;  e-disco, 
to  learn  by  heart ;  im-memor,  unmindful ;  per-facilis,  very  easy  ;  pro-consul, 

1  These  are  the  only  desideratives  in  common  use,  but  a  few  others  occur :  cend-turid, 
lto  desire  to  dine,'  from  cen$,  'to  dine';  emp-turio,  'to  desire  to  purchase,1  from  emo, 
1  to  purchase ' ;  nup-turio, '  to  desire  to  marry,'  from  nubO, '  to  marry.'    They  were  prob- 
ably formed  originally  through  the  medium  of  a  verbal  noun  in  tor  or  sor  (326,  foot-note 
2) :  thus,  ccno,  cend-tor,  4  one  who  dines ' ;  cend-tor-l-re  =  eend-tur-i-re  (p  changed  to 
-w),  'to  desire  to  dine';  emO,  Imp-tor,  ;a  purchaser';  emp-tor-lre  =  emp-tur-l-re,  'to 
desire  to  purchase.' 

2  Probably  denominatives  formed  from  verb-stems  through  diminutive  verbal  nouns. 


NOUtfS.  173 

proconsul,  one  acting  for  a  consul;  inter-regnum,  interregnum,  an  interval 
between  two  reigns. 

III.  By  uniting  two  or  more  simple  stems  or  roots,  and  adding 
appropriate  inflectional  suffixes  when  needed : l 

Igni-color,1  fire-colored ;  grandi-aevo-s,1  grand-aevus,  a,  um,  of  great  age  ; 
omni-potent-s,  omnipotens,  omnipotent ;  mdgno-animo-s,  magnanimus,  a,  um, 
great-souled ;  tubi-cen,  trumpeter ;  arti-fec-s,  artifex,  artificer ;  alio-qul,  ali- 
quisf  any  one. 

1.  In  the  first  element  of  the  compound  observe — 

1)  That  the  stem-vowel  generally  takes  the  form  of  i :  capro-corno-s, 
capri-cornus  ;  tuba-cen,  tubi-cen. 

2)  That  consonant  stems  sometimes  assume  i :  7iondr-i-fico-s,  Tionoriftcus, 
a,  um,  honorable. 

3)  That  the  stem-vowel  disappears  before  another  vowel :  mdgno-animus, 
mdgnanimus. 

2.  The  stem-ending  and  the  inflectional  ending  of  the  second  element 
generally  remain  unchanged  in  the  compound  ;  see  examples  above.     But 
observe — 

1)  That  they  are  sometimes  slightly  changed :  aequo-nocti,  aequi-noctio-m,* 
aequinoctium,  equinox ;  multa-forma,  multi-formis,  with  many  forms. 

2)  That  a  verbal  root  or  stem  may  be  the  second  element  in  a  compound 
noun  or  adjective  :  tubi-cen  (cen  =  can,  the  root  of  cano,  to  sing),  trumpeter ; 
feti-fer  (fer,  root  offero,  to  bear),  death-bearing. 

NOTE.— The  words  classed  under  II.  and  III.  are  regarded  as  real  compounds,  but 
those  under  III.  best  illustrate  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  genuine  compounds,  as 
they  are  formed  from  compound  stems  and  have  a  meaning  which  could  not  be  expressed 
by  the  separate  words.  Thus,  mdgnus  animus  means  a  great  soul,  but  mdgnanimus 
means  having  a  great  soul.* 

341.  In  COMPOUND  NOUNS,  the  first  part  is  generally  the  stem 
of  a  noun  or  adjective,  sometimes  an  adverb  or  preposition;  and 
the  second  part  is  the  stem  of  a  noun,  or  a  stem  from  a  verbal  root : 

arti-fex,  artist,  from  arti-fac  in  ars        and  facio. 

capri-cornus,  Capricorn,  "  capro-comu  "  caper       *    cornu. 

aequi-noctium,  equinox,  "  aequo-nocti  "  aequus    "    nox-w 

ne-mo,  nobody,  "  ne-homon  "  ne            "    homo, 

pro-nomen,  pronoun,  "  pro-nomen  "  pro          "    nomen. 

1  Thus  igni-eolor  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  stems  without  inflectional  suffix; 
but  in  grand-aevu-s,  the  suffix  s  is  added  to  the  stem  grandaevo,  compounded  of  grandi 
and  aevd. 

2  Literally,  any  other  one. 

3  Ti,  the  stem-ending  of  nox,  becomes  tid,  to  which  is  added  the  nominative-ending  m. 

4  Class  II.  occupies  a  position  intermediate  between  I.  and  III.    Some  compounds 
of  particles  with  verbs,  for  example,  have  developed  a  meaning  quite  distinct  from  that 
denoted  by  the  separate  parts,  while  others  have  simply  retained  the  ordinary  meaning 
of  those  parts. 


174  COMPOSITION  OF  WORDS. 

1.  COMPOUNDS  in  ex,  dex,  fex,  cen,  cida,  and  cola  deserve  special 
notice : 

Remo-ex,  remex,1  oarsman  ;  jus-dex,  judex,1  judge  ;  arti-fex,  artist ;  tlbia- 
cen,  tibi-cen,*  flute-player;  homon-cida,  homi-tida,3  manslayer;  agri-cola* 
husbandman,  one  who  tills  the  soil. 

NOTE.— Ex  (for  ag-s)  is  from  the  root  ag  in  ago,  to  drive,  impel;  dex  (for  dic-s), 
from  die  in  dicO,  to  make  known ;  fex  (for  fac-s),  from  fac  in  faciO,  to  make ;  cen,  from 
can  in  cano,  to  sing ;  clda  (for  caed-a),  from  caed  in  caedo,  to  cut,  slay ;  coto  (for  col-a), 
from  coZ  in  co&J,  to  cultivate. 

342.  In  COMPOUND  ADJECTIVES,  the  first  part  is  generally  the 
stem  of  a  noun  or  adjective,  sometimes  an  adverb  or  preposition ; 
and  the  second  is  the  stem  of  a  noun  or  adjective,  or  a  stem  from 
a  verbal  root : 

leti-fer,  death-bearing,   from  leti-fer  in  letum     and  fero. 

magn-animus,  magnanimous,      "      magno-animo    ,"   magnus    "    animus, 
per-facilis,        very  easy,  "      per-facili  "  per  "    facilis. 

1.  Compounds  in  ceps,  fer,  ger,  dicus,  ficus,  and  volus  deserve 
notice : 

Parti-ceps,  taking  part ;  auri-fer,  gold-bearing ;  armi-ger,  carrying  arms ; 
fdti-dicus,  predicting  fate ;  mlri-ficus,  causmg  wonder ;  bene-volus,  well- 
wishing. 

NOTE.— Ceps  (for  cap-s)  is  from  the  root  cap  in  capio,  to  take;  fer,  from  fer  in  fero, 
to  bear;  ger,  from  ger  in  gerO,  to  carry;  dicus  (for  dic-o-s),  from  die  in  dicO,  to  make 
known \ficus  (for  fac-o-s),  from/ac  in  J 'ado,  to  make;  volus  (for  vol-o-s),  from  vol  in 
void,  to  wish. 

343.  COMPOUND  NOUNS  and  ADJECTIVES  are  divided  according 
to  signification  into  three  classes : 

I.  DETERMINATIVE  COMPOUNDS,  in  which  the  second  part  is  qualified  by 
the  first : 

Inter-rex,  interrex ;  meri-dies,5  midday ;  bene-votus,  well-wishing ;  per- 
mdgnu$,  very  great ;  in-dlgnus,  unworthy. 

II.  OBJECTIVE  COMPOUNDS,  in  which  the  second  part  is  limited  by  the 
first  as  object : 

Prm-ceps,  taking  the  first  place ;  belli-ger,  waging  war ;  ju-dex,  judge, 
one  who  dispenses  (makes  known)  justice  ;  Tiomi-clda,  one  who  slays  a  man ; 
agri-cola,  one  who  tills  the  field.  See  other  examples  in  342,  1. 

III.  POSSESSIVE  COMPOUNDS,  in  origin  mostly  adjectives.     They  desig- 

1  0  is  dropped  in  remex,  and  s  \njudex;  see  27 ;  36,  8,  note  3. 

2  A,  weakened  to  i,  unites  with  the  preceding  i,  forming  I. 
8  N dropped,  and  o  weakened  to  i;  see  36,  3,  note  8. 

4  The  stem-vowel  o  of  agro  is  weakened  to  i:  agri,'  see  22* 
6  From  r^edius  and  dies. 


175 

nate  qualities  or  attributes  as  possessed  by  some  person  or  thing,  and  are 
often  best  rendered  by  supplying  having  or  possessing: 

Aeni-pes,  having  bronze  feet ; l  celeri-pes,  swift-footed ;  ali-pes,  wing-foot- 
ed, having  wings  for  feet ;  mdgn-animus,  having  a  great  soul ;  un-animus^ 
having  one  mind ;  long-aevus^  of  great  age,  having  a  long  life. 

344.  COMPOUND  VERBS. — Verbs  in  general  are  compounded 
only  with  prepositions,  originally  adverbs : a 

Ab-edj  to  go  away ;  ex-eo,  to  go  out ;  prod-ed,  to  go  forth ;  con-vocd,  to  call 
together;  de-cido,  to  fall  off;  prae-dicd^  to  foretell;  re-duco,  to  lead  back; 
re-fidd,  to  repair,  to  make  anew.3 

1.  Facio  and  fid  may  also  unite  with  verbal  stems  in  e : 

Cale-facio,  to  make  warm;  cale-fid,  to  be  made  warm,  become  warm; 
Idbe-facio,  to  cause  to  totter ;  pate-facio,  to  open,  cause  to  be  open. 

2.  Verbs  are  often  united  with  other  words  in  writing  without  strictly 
forming  compounds : 

Manu  mitto  or  manu-mitto,  to  emancipate,  let  go  from  the  hand ;  satis 
fado  or  satis-facio,  to  satisfy,  do  enough  for ;  animum  ad-verto  or  anim-ad- 
verto,  to  notice,  turn  the  mind  to. 

3.  Verbs  in  fico  and  facto,  like  the  following,  are  best  explained  not 
as  compounds  but  as  denominatives : 4 

Aedi-fico,  to  build,  from  aedifex  /  ampli-ficof  to  enlarge ;  cale-facto,  to 
make  warm,  from  cate-factus* 

4.  Verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  often  undergo  certain  vowel- 
changes  : 

1)  Short  a,  and  e  generally  become  i :  Kabeo,  ad-hibeo ;  teneO,  con-tineO.    But  a 
sometimes  becomes  e  or  u:  carpo,  de-cerpo;  calco,  con-culcO. 

2)  Ae  becomes  I :  caedo,  in-vido. 

3)  Au  generally  becomes  o  or  u :  plaudo,  eao-plodd;  claudo,  in-cludfa 

5.  FORM  AND  MEANING  OP  PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION. — The  following 
facts  are  added  for  reference : 

A,  ab,  abs. — 1.  FORM :  d  before  m  and #,  and  sometimes  before//  abs 
before  c,  ^,  £,  and,  with  the  loss  of  5,  also  before  p  6 ;  au  in  au-fero  and  au- 
fugio  /  db  before  the  other  consonants,  and  before  vowels. — 2.  MEANING  : 
(1) ;  away,'  l  off ' :  d-mitto,  to  send  away  ;  dbs-condd,  to  hide  away ;  as-porto, 

1  Observe  the  force  of  the  compound.    Aenuspes  means  a  brazen  foot,  but  aeni-pea 
means  having  brazen  feet;  see  also  340,  III.,  note. 

2  The  words  thus  formed  are  strictly  compounds  of  'Kerbs  with  adverbs,  as  the  origi- 
nal type  of  these  compounds  was  formed  before  the  adverb  became  a  preposition. 

3  Observe  in  these  examples  the  strict  adverbial  use  of  the  particles  ct&,  ear,  etc.,  away, 
out,  etc.    Prepositions,  on  the  other  hand,  always  denote  relations,  and  are  auxiliary 
to  the  case-endings;  see  307,  foot-note. 

4  In  some  of  these  the  primitive  is  not  found  in  actual  use. 
6  As  abb-petto,  as-pello,  to  drive  away. 


176  PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION. 

to  carry  off ;  au-fvgio,  to  flee  away  ;  ab-sum,  to  be  away  ;  ab-eo,  to  go  away ; 
ab-jicio  or  ab-icio*  to  throw  away ;  (2)  in  adjectives,  generally  negative : 
d-mens,  without  mind,  frantic ;  db-similis,  unlike. 

Ad. — 1.  FORM  :  ad  before  vowels,  and  before  b,  d,  f,  h,  /,  m,  n,  q,  and  0, 
sometimes  before  g,  I,  r,  and  5,  rarely  before  p  and  2  /  d  assimilated  before 
c,  generally  before  p  and  2,  and  sometimes  before  g,  I,  q,  r,  and  s ;  gener- 
ally dropped  before  gn,  sc,  sp,  and  st*— 2.  MEANING  :  '  to,'  *  toward,'  *  to 
one's  self' ;  '  on,'  *  at,'  '  near,'  '  by ' ;  '  besides ' :  ad-duco,  to  lead  to ;  ac-cido, 
to  fall  to,  happen ;  ad-moved,  to  move  toward ;  ac-cipid,  to  receive,  take  to 
one's  self;  ac-dngo,  to  gird  on;  ad-latro  or  al-latro,  to  bark  at;  ad-sum, 
to  be  present  or  near ;  ad-sto  or  a-sto,  to  stand  near,  to  stand  by ;  ad-disco, 
to  learn  besides. 

Ante. — 1.  FORM:  unchanged  except  in  anti-cipo,  'to  take  beforehand,' 
and  in  composition  with  sto  :  ante-sto  or  anti-std,  to  stand  before. — 2.  MEAN- 
ING :  '  before,' '  beforehand ' :  ante-currd,  to  run  before ;  ante-habed,  to  prefer 
— lit.,  to  have  or  hold  before. 

Circum.— 1.  FORM  :  generally  unchanged,  but  m  is  sometimes  dropped 
in  compounds  of  eo,  to  go :  circum-eo  or  circu-eo,  to  go  around.  —2.  MEAN- 
ING :  *  around,'  *  about ' :  eircum-mittd,  to  send  around. 

Com.3— 1.  FORM  :  com  before  b,  m,  p  ;  co  before  vowels,4  h,  and  gn  ;  5  con 
or  col  before  1;  cor  before  r;  con  before  the  other  consonants. — 2.  MEAN- 
ING :  (1)  *  together,'  '  with,'  in  various  senses  :  com-bibo,  to  drink  together ; 
com-mitto,  to  let  go  together ;  co-ed,  to  go  together ;  col-loquor,  to  talk  with ; 
con-fligd,  to  contend  with;  (2)  'completely,'  'thoroughly'  :  con-fido,  to  com- 
plete, make  completely;  con-cito,  to  rouse  thoroughly;  con-sumo,  to  con- 
sume, take  wholly ;  con-densus,  very  dense. 

E,  ex. — 1.  FORM  :  ex  before  vowels  and  before  c,  h,  p,6  q,  s,7 1,  and  with 
assimilation  before  //8  e  before  the  other  consonants.9— 2.  MEANING:  (1) 
4  out,'  *  forth,'  '  without,'  implying  'freedom  from ' :  e&-eo,  to  go  out,  go  forth ; 
ex-cido,  to  fall  out ;  e-do,  to  put  forth ;  ex-sanguis,  without  blood,  bloodless  ; 
ex-onero,  to  unload,  disburden ;  (2)  '  thoroughly,'  '  completely,'  '  successful- 
ly ' :  ex-uro,  to  burn  up  ;  e-discd,  to  learn  by  heart ;  ef-ficio,  to  effect,  do  suc- 
cessfully ;  e-duru-s,  very  hard. 

In. — 1.  FORM  :  n  sometimes  assimilated  before  I,  often  before  w10  and  r; 

1  See  foot-note  1,  p.  20. 

2  Sometimes  retained  :  ad-gnosco  or  d-gnoscO  ;  ad-sto  or  a-sto. 

3  An  earlier  form  for  cum. 

4  A  contraction  often  takes  place :  co-ago,  co-go.    Com  is  sometimes  retained  before 
e  or  i,  and  co  or  con  is  used  before  i=ji:  com-edo,  com-itor,  co-icio  or  con-iciO  = 
con-iicio  or  con-jicio;  see  foot-note  1,  p.  20. 

6  Co  also  appears  in  co-necto,  co-nlveo,  co-nltor,  and  co-ntibium. 

6  But  e-pbto  and  e-potus  ;  ex-scendo  or  e-scendo. 

7  Sis  sometimes  dropped  after  SB:  exspecto  or  ex-pecto. 

8  C  before  /  is  not  recommended;  ef-fero  is  better  than  ec-ferO. 

9  But  ex-lex. 

10  Im  is  the  approved  form  before  &,  p,  and  m,  especially  in  im-perdtor,  im-perO,  and 
im-perium. 


PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION.  177 

often  changed  to  m  before  b  tmdp  ;  in  other  situations  unchanged.— 2.  MEAN- 
ING :  *  in,'  '  into,7  *  on,'  i  at,'  '  against ' :  in-colo,  to  dwell  in ;  in-eo,  to  go 
into ;  im-migro,  to  move  into ;  in-nltor,  to  lean  on  ;  in-tueor,  to  look  at ; 
ir-rideo,  to  laugh  at ;  im-pugno,  to  fight  against. 

Inter. — 1.  FORM  :  unchanged,  except  in  intel-lego,  to  understand. — 2. 
MEANING:  'between,'  sometimes  involving  interruption,1  'together' :  inter- 
venio,  to  come  between,  intervene ;  inter-died,  to  forbid,  interdict ;  inter- 
necto,  to  tie  together. 

Ob. — 1.  FORM  :  b  assimilated  before  c,  /,  g,  and  p  ;  dropped  in  o-mitto, 
to  omit,  and  in  operio,  to  cover ;  in  other  situations  generally  unchanged.2 — 
2.  MEANING  :  (1)  '  before,'  ;  in  the  way,'  { toward,'  *  against,'  especially  of  an 
obstruction  or  opposition :  of-fero,  to  bring  before ;  ob-sto,  to  stand  in  the  way ; 
oc-curro,  to  run  toward,  run  to  meet ;  op-pugno,  to  attack,  fight  against ;  (2) 
'down,'  'completely' :  oc-cido,  to  cut  down,  kill;  op-primo,  to  press  down, 
to  overwhelm. 

Per. — 1.  FORM:  generally  unchanged,  but  r  is  sometimes  assimilated  be- 
fore I,3  and  is  dropped  before  j  in  compounds  ofjuro,  as  pe-jero,*  to  swear 
falsely. — 2.  MEANING  :  '  through,'  '  thoroughly,'  sometimes  in  a  bad  sense  with 
the  idea  of  'breaking  through,  disregarding ;  per-lego,  to  read  through ;  per- 
disco,  to  learn  thoroughly ;  per-fidus,  perfidious,  breaking  faith. 

Post. — 1.  FORM:  unchanged,  except  in  pd-merium,  the  open  space  on 
either  side  of  the  city- wall,  and  pos-merididnus*  of  the  afternoon. — 2.  MEAN- 
ING :  '  after,'  '  behind ' :  post-Tiabeo,  to  place  after,  have  after,  esteem  less. 

Pro,  prod. — 1.  FORM  :  pro  is  the  usual  form,  both  before  vowels  and 
before  consonants ;  prod,  the  original  form,  is  retained  in  a  few  words  before 
vowels.6 — 2.  MEANING:  'forth,'  'forward,'  'before,'  'for':  prod-ed,  to  go 
forth  or  forward ;  pro-curro,  to  run  forward ;  pro-pugno,  to  fight  in  front  of, 
fight  for;  pro-Jiibeo,  to  hold  aloof,  i.  e.,  out  of  one's  reach,  hence  to  prohibit ; 
pro-mitto,  to  send  forth,  to  hold  out  as  a  promise,  to  promise. 

Sub.— 1.  FORM:  b  assimilated  before  c, f,  g,  an£j?,  and  often  before  m 
and  r ;  dropped  before  sp ;  in  other  situations  unchanged.  The  form  subs, 
shortened  to  sus,  occurs  in  a  few  words :  sus-cipio,  sus-pendo. — 2.  MEANING  : 
'  under,'  '  down,'  '  from  under,'  '  up ' ;  'in  place  of,'  '  secretly ' ;  '  somewhat,' 
'  slightly ' : 7  sub-eo,  to  go  under ;  sub-labor,  to  slip  down ;  sub-duco,  to  draw 
from  under,  withdraw ;  sus-cipio,  to  undertake ;  sus-cito,  to  lift  up,  arouse ; 

1  It  is  used  in  several  compounds  referring  to  death:  inter-eo,  to  die;  inter-field, 
to  kill. 

2  Obs  seems  to  occur  in  a  few  words :  obs-olesco.  os-tendo  for  obs-tendo  (b  dropped), 
though  these  words  are  sometimes  otherwise  explained ;  thus  ob-solescti,  as  a  compound 
of  solesco  from  soleo. 

3  As  per-lego,  pel-lego  ;  per~licio,  pel-lido  ;  but  per  is  preferable. 

4  For  per-juro. 

6  Post-merldidnus  is  also  used ;  po~mertdidnus  is  not  approved,  though  it  occurs. 

6  As  in  prod-eO,  prod-igO,  prod-igus,  and  before  e  in  the  compound  of  sum :  prod- 
«,  prod-est,  etc. 

7  Mostly  in  adjectives :  sub-absurdus,  somewhat  absurd ;  sub-dolus,  somewhat  crafty; 
£ub-impudens,  somewhat  impudent ;  siib-invlsus,  somewhat  odious. 


178  PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION. 

sub-stitud,  to  put  in  place  of,  to  substitute ;  siib-ripio,  to  take  away  secretly ; 
sub-rideo,  to  smile,  laugh  slightly ;  sub-dijficilis,  somewhat  difficult. 

Trans.— 1.  FOBM:  it  generally  drops  *  before  s,  and  it  often  drops  ns 
before  d,  j,1  I,  m,  n  ;  it  is  otherwise  unchanged. — 2.  MEANING  :  *  across,' 
4  through,' 4  completely' :  trdns-currO,  to  run  across ;  tra-ducd,  to  lead  across ; 
tran-silio,  to  leap  across ;  trans-igo,  to  transact ;  to  finish,  do  completely  or 
thoroughly — lit.,  to  drive  through. 

6.  FORM  AND  MEANING  OP  THE  INSEPARABLE  PREPOSITIONS. — The  follow* 
ing  facts  are  added  for  reference : 

Ambi,  amb.2— 1.  FOBM :  amb  before  vowels ;  ambi,  am,  or  an*  before 
consonants. — 2.  MEANING  :  '  around,'  *  on  "both  sides,'  '  in  two  directions ' : 
amb-iof  to  go  round ;  amb-igd,  to  act  in  two  ways,  move  in  different  direc- 
tions, to  hesitate  ;  am-puto,  to  cut  around  or  off;  an-qulrd,  to  search  round. 

Dis,  di. — 1.  FOBM  :  dis  before*?,  p,  <?,  t,  before  s  followed  by  a  vowel,  and, 
•with  assimilation,  before//  but  dir  for  dis  before  a  vowel  or  A/  di  in  most 
other  situations  ;  but  both  dis  and  di  occur  before,/.5 — 2.  MEANING  :  '  apart,' 
*  asunder,' 6  '  between,'  sometimes  negative 7  and  sometimes  intensive  :  dis- 
tined,  to  hold  apart ;  di-duco,  to  lead  apart,  divide  ;  dif-fugio,  to  flee  asunder, 
or  in  different  directions ;  dir-imd,  to  take  in  pieces,  destroy ;  dis-sentio,  to 
think  differently,  dissent ;  dl-judicd,  to  judge  between ;  dis-pliceo,  to  dis- 
please, not  to  please ;  dif-ficilis,  difficult,  not  easy ;  di-laudo,  to  praise  highly. 

In. — 1.  FOBM:  n  dropped  before  gn ;  otherwise  like  the  preposition  in. 
— 2.  MEANING  :  *  not,'  *  un ' :  i-gnosco,  not  to  know,  not  to  recollect,  to  par- 
don ;  im-memor,  unmindful ;  in-imlcus,  unfriendly. 

Por,  for  port.8—!.  FOBM:  r  assimilated  before  I  and  a;  in  other  situa- 
tions, por. — 2.  MEANING  :  *  forth,'  '  forward,'  '  near ' :  pol-liceor,  to  hold  forth, 
offer,  promise ;  pos-sided,  to  possess ;  •  por-rigd,  to  hold  out  or  forth,  to  offer. 

Red,  re.— 1.  FOBM:  red  before  vowels,  before  7i,  and  in  red-do;  re  in 
other  situations.— 2.  MEANING  :  *  back,'  *  again,'  *  in  return ' : 10  red-ed,  to  go 
back ;  re-ficio,  to  repair,  make  again ;  red-amd,  to  love  in  return. 

Sed,11  se. — 1.  FOBM  :  sed  before  vowels ;  se  before  consonants.— 2.  MEAN- 
ING :  '  apart,'  '  aside' :  se-oedd,  to  go  apart,  secede ;  se-pond,  to  put  aside  or  apart. 

NOTE.— For  the  Composition  of  Adverbs,  see  304, 1.,  2;  304,  II.,  1,  note; 
304,  IV.,  note  2. 

1  Or  before  i  =j  oiji;  see  foot-note  1,  p.  20. 

2  Compare  ambo,  both,  and  aju^t,  around,  on  both  sides. 
An  before  c,  £,  /,  and  t. 

For  amb-eo. 

Dis-jungo,  dl-judicd. 

Both  literally  '  apart*  in  respect  to  place  or  position,  and  figuratively  '  apart*  In 
sentiment  or  opinion. 

Especially  in  adjectives :  die-par,  unequal ;  dis-similis,  unlike. 

Greek  iroprL  irpori,  Trpos,  to,  toward ;  see  Curtius,  381. 

To  sit  near  mid  so  to  control. 

1    Sometimes  negative,  not,  un- :  re-8igno,  to  unseal;  re-cliido,  to  open. 
1    Probably  an  old  ablative  of  sul  and  identical  with  sed)  but. 


CLASSIFICA  TION  OF  SENTENCES.  179 

/ 

PART  THIRD. 

SYNTAX. 


CHAPTEE    I. 
SYNTAX    OF    SENTENCES. 


I.   CLASSIFICATION    OF    SENTENCES. 

345.  SYNTAX  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

346.  A  sentence  is  a  combination  of  words  expressing  either  a 
single  thought  or  two  or  more  thoughts. 

347.  A  SIMPLE  SENTENCE  expresses  a  single  thought : 
Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built}  the  world.  Cic. 

348.  A  COMPLEX  SENTENCE  expresses  one  leading  thought  with 
one  or  more  dependent  thoughts : 

Donee  eris  fellx,  multos  numerabis  amlcos,  so  long  as  you  shall  be  prosper- 
ous, you  will  number  many  friends.  Ovid. 

NOTE  1.— In  this  example  two  simple  sentences— (1) '  you  will  be  prosperous?  and 
(2)  *  you  will  number  many  friends ' — are  so  united  that  the  first  only  specifies  the  time 
of  the  second :  You  will  number  many  friends  (when  ?),  so  long  as  you  shall  be  pros- 
perous. The  parts  thus  united  are  called  Clauses  or  Members. 

NOTE  2. — The  part  of  the  complex  sentence  which  makes  complete  sense  of  itself— 
multos  numerabis  amlcos— is  called  the  Principal  or  Independent  Clause;  and  the 
part  which  is  dependent  upon  it— donee  eris  fellx— is  called  the  Subordinate  or  De- 
pendent Clause. 

349.  A  COMPOUND  SENTENCE  expresses  two  or  more  independ- 
ent thoughts : 

Sol  ruit  et  montes  umbrantur,  the  sun  hastens  to  its  setting  and  the  moun- 
tains are  shaded.  Verg. 

350.  A  DECLARATIVE  SENTENCE  has  the  form  of  an  assertion : 
Miltiades  accusatus  est,  Miltiades  was  accused-.  Nep. 

351.  An  INTERROGATIVE  SENTENCE  has  the  form  of  a  ques- 
tion: 

Quis  loquitur,  who  speaks?  Ter.  Quis  non  paupertatem  exthne'scit, 
who  does  not  fear  poverty  ?  Cic.  Quid  ais,  what  do  you  say  ?  Ter.  EC* 


180  SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 

quid1  anlmadvertis  silentium,  do  you  not  notice  the  silence?  Cic.  Qualis  est 
oratio,  what  kind  of  an,  oration  is  it?  Cic.  Quot  sunt,  how  many  are  there? 
Plant.  Ub!  sunt,  where  are  they  ?  Cic.  Ubiuam  gentium  sumus,  where  in 
the  world  are  we?  Cic.  Visne  fortunam  experlrl  meam,  do  you  wish  to  try 
my  fortune  ?  Cic.  Nonne  nobilitari  volunt,  do  they  not  wish  to  be  renowned  ? 
Cic.  Num  igitur  peccamus,  are  we  then  at  fault  ?  Cic. 

1.  INTERROGATIVE  WORDS. — Interrogative  sentences  generally  contain  some 
interrogative  word— either  an  interrogative  pronoun,  adjective,  or  adverb,  or 
one  of  the  interrogative  particles : 2  -ne,  ndnne,  num  •  see  examples  above. 

NOTE  1. —Questions  with  -ne  ask  for  information:  Scrlbitne,  'is  he  writing?'  Ne 
is  sometimes  appended  to  utrum,  num,  or  an,  without  affecting  their  meaning,  and  some- 
times inserted  in  the  clause  after  utrum : 

Numne  ferre  arma  dehuerunt,  ought  they  to  have  borne  arms  f  Cic.  Utrum  tace- 
amne,  an  praedicem,  shall  I  be  silent,  or  shall  I  speak  f  Ter. 

NOTE  2. — Questions  with  ndnne  expect  the  answer  yes:  Nonne  scrlbit,  'is  he  not 
writing  ? * 

NOTE  3. — Questions  with  num  expect  the  answer  no :  Num  scrlbit,  'is  he  writing?' 

NOTE  4.— For  questions  with  an,  see  353,  note  4. 

2.  The  particle  -ne  is  always  appended  to  some  other  word,  generally  to 
the  emphatic  word  of  the  sentence,  i.  e.,  to  the  word  upon  which  the  ques- 
tion especially  turns ;  appended  to  non,  it  forms  ndnne : 

Vlsne  experiri,  do  you  WISH  to  try  ?  Cic.  Tune  id  veritus  es,  did  YOU  fear  this  ? 
Cic.  Omnisne  pecunia  soluta  est,  has  ALL  the  money  been  paid?  Cic.  Ubc.inc.8t 
(=  hocine  est 3)  officium  patris,  is  THIS  the  duty  of  a  father  ?  Ter.  Unquamne  vldlstJ, 
have  you  EVER  seen  f  Cic.  Ndnne  volunt,  do  they  NOT  wish  ?  Cfc. 

3.  Sometimes  no  interrogative  word  is  used,  especially  in  impassioned 
discourse : 

Creditis,  do  you  believe  ?  Verg.    Ego  non  potero,  shall  I  not  be  able  ?  Cic. 

4.  An  emphatic  tandem,  meaning  indeed,  pray,  then,  often  occurs  in  inter- 
rogative sentences : 

Quod  genus  tandem  est  istud  gloriae,  wJiat  kind  of  glory  is  that,  pray  ?  Cic. 
NOTE  1. — Nam,  appended  to  an  interrogative,  also  adds  emphasis: 
Numnain  haec  audivit,  did  he  hear  this,  pray  ?  Ter. 

NOTE  2.— For  Two  Interrogates  in  the  same  clause,  and  for  an  Interrogative  with 
tantus,  see  454,  3  and  4. 

352.  ANSWERS. — Instead  of  replying  to  a  question  of  fact  with 
a  simple  particle  meaning  yes  or  no,  the  Latin  usually  repeats  the 
verb  or  some  emphatic  word,  often  with  prorsus,  vero,  and  the  like, 
or  if  negative,  with  non  : 

Dixitne  causam,  did  Tie  state  the  cause?  Dixit,  Tie  stated  it.  Cic.  Pos- 
sumusne  tutl  esse,  can  we  be  safe?  Non  possumus,  we  can  not.  Cic. 

1  Ecquid,  though  the  neuter  accusative  of  an  interrogative  pronoun,  has  become  in 
effect  a  mere  particle  with  the  force  of  ndnne. 

2  See  311,  8,  foot-note. 

3  See  2  7,  note. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES.  1$1 

NOTE  1.— Sometimes  the  simple  particle  is  used— affirmatively,  sane,  etiam,  ita,  wlrd, 
terte,  etc. ;  negatively,  nan,  minime,  etc. 

Venitne,  has  he  come  ?    Non,  no.  Plaut. 

NOTE  2.— Sometimes,  without  an  actual  repetition  of  the  emphatic  word,  some  equi- 
valent expression  is  used : 

Tuam  vestem  detraxit  tib!,  did  he  strip  off  your  coat?  Factum,  he  did— lit.,  done, 
for  it  was  done.  Ter. 

353.  DOUBLE  or  DISJUNCTIVE  QUESTIONS  offer  a  choice  or  alter- 
native, and  generally  take  one  of  the  following  forms  : 

1.  The  first  clause  has  utrum  or  -ne,  and  the  second  an: 

Utrum  ea  vestra  an  nostra  culpa  est,  is  that  your  fault  or  ours?  Cic. 
Komamne  venio  an  hie  maneo,  do  I  go  to  Rome,  or  do  I  remain  Jiere?  Cic. 

2.  The  first  clause  omits  the  particle,  and  the  second  has  an,  or  anne  : 
Eloquar  an  sileam,  shall  I  utter  it,  or  keep  silence?  Verg.    Gablnio  dlcam 

anne  Pompeio,  to  G-abinius,  shall  I  say,  or  to  Pompey?  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— Other  forms  are  rare.1 

NOTE  2.—  Utrum  sometimes  stands  before  a  disjunctive  question  with  -ne  in  the  first 
clause  and  an  in  the  second : 

Utrum,  taceamne,  an  praedicem,  which,  shall  I  be  silent,  or  shall  I  speak  ?  Ter. 

NOTE  3.— When  the  second  clause  is  negative,  the  particle  generally  unites  with  the 
negative,  giving  annon  or  necne: 

Bunt  haec  tua  verba  necne,  are  these  your  words  or  not  ?  Cic. 

NOTE  4.— By  the  omission  of  the  first  clause,  the  second  often  stands  alone  with  an* 
in  the  sense  of  or,  implying  a  negative  answer : 

An  hoc  timemus,  or  do  we  fear  this  ?  Liv. 

NOTE  5.— Disjunctive  questions  sometimes  have  three  or  more  members:  * 

Gablnio  anne  Pompeio  an  utrique,  to  GaTnnius,  or  Pompey,  or  both  ?  Cic. 

NOTE  6.— Disjunctive  questions  inquire  which  alternative  is  true.  These  must  be 
distinguished— 

1)  From  such  single  questions  as  inquire  whether  either  alternative  is  true: 
Solein  dlcam  aut  lunam  deum,  shall  I  call  the  sun  or  the  moon  a  god  ?  3  Cic. 

2)  From  two  separate  questions,  introduced  respectively  by  num,  implying  a  negative 
answer,  and  by  an,  implying  an  affirmative  answer : 

Num  furis  ?  an  ludis  me  ?  are  you  mad  ?  or  do  you  not  rather  mock  me  ?  Hor. 

354.  An  IMPERATIVE  SENTENCE  has  the  form  of  a  command, 
exhortation,  or  entreaty : 

Justitiam  cole,  cultivate  justice.   Cic. 

355.  An  EXCLAMATORY  SENTENCE  has  the  form  of  an  exclama- 
tion: 

Beliquit  quos  viros,  what  men  Tie  has  left !  Cic. 

1  Thus,  in  Yergil,  -ne  occurs  in  both  clauses,  also  -ne  in  the  first  with  seu  in  the  sec- 
ond.   In  Horace,  -ne  occurs  in  the  second  clause  with  no  particle  in  the  first. 

2  Cicero,  in  his  oration  Pro  Domo,  xxii.,  57,  has  a  question  of  this  kind  extended  to 
eight  clauses,  the  first  introduced  by  utrum  and  each  of  the  others  by  an. 

3  Observe  that  in  this  sense  aut,  not  an,  is  used. 


182  SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 

NOTE  1.— Many  sentences  introduced  by  interrogative  pronouns,  adjectives,  or  ad- 
verbs may  be  so  spoken  as  to  become  exclamatory : 

Quibus  gaudiis  exsultabis,  in  what  joys  will  you  exult !  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— Some  declarative  and  imperative  sentences  readily  become  exclamatory. 

NOTE  3.— Exclamatory  sentences  are  often  elliptical. 

II.    ELEMENTS    OF    SENTENCES. 

356.  The  SIMPLE  SENTENCE  in  its  MOST  SIMPLE  FORM  consists 
of  two  distinct  parts,  expressed  or  implied : 

1.  The  SUBJECT,  or  that  of  which  it  speaks; 

2.  The  PREDICATE,  or  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject :    • 
Clullius  moritur,  Cluilius  dies.1  Liv. 

357.  The  SIMPLE  SENTENCE  in  its  MOST  EXPANDED  FORM  con- 
sists only  of  these  same  parts  with  their  various  modifiers : 

In  his  castrls  Clullius,  Albanus  rex,  moritur,  Cluilius,  the  Alban  Icing, 
dies  in  this  camp.*  Liv. 

1.  The  subject  and  predicate  of  a  sentence  are  called  the  Principal  or 
Essential  elements ;  tlieir  modifiers,  the  Subordinate  elements. 

2.  The  elements,  whether  principal  or  subordinate,  may  be  either  simple 
or  complex : 

1)  Simple,  when  not  modified  by  other  words ;  see  358. 

2)  Complex,  when  thus  modified ;  see  359. 

358.  The  SIMPLE  SUBJECT  of  a  sentence  must  be  a  noun,  a  pro- 
noun, or  some  word  or  words  used  as  a  noun : s 

Hex  decrevit,  the  Icing  decreed.  Nep.  Ego  scribe,  I  write.  Cic.  Ibam, 
I  was  walking.  Hor.  Vlcimus,  we  have  conquered.  Cic.  Video  idem  valet, 
the  word  video  has  the  same  meaning.  Quint. 

359.  The  COMPLEX  SUBJECT  consists  of  the  simple  subject  with 
its  modifiers : 

Populus  Romdnus  decrevit,  the  KOMAN  people  decreed.  Cic.  Cluilius  rex 
moritur,  Cluilius  THE  KING  dies.  Liv.  Eex  Rutulorum,  the  king  OF  THE 
RTJTTJLI.  Liv.  Liber  de  qfficiis,  the  book  ON  DUTIES.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  subject  is  thus  modified— 

1)  By  an  ADJECTIVE  :  Populus  Rdmdnus. 

2)  By  a  NOUN  IN  APPOSITION  :  Cluilius  rex. 

3)  By  a  GENITIVE  :  Eex  Rutulorum. 

4)  By  a  NOUN  WITH  A  PREPOSITION  :  Liber  de  offieils. 

1  Here  Clullius  is  the  subject,  and  moritur  the  predicate. 

2  Here  Clullius,  Albanus  rex,  is  the  subject  in  its  enlarged  or  modified  form,  and  in 
his  castrls  moritur  is  the  predicate  in  its  enlarged  or  modified  form. 

3  A  pronominal  subject  is  always  contained  or  implied  in  the  personal  ending.    Thus 
m  in  Iba-m  is  a  pronominal  stem  =  ego,  and  is  the  true  original  subject  of  the  verb.    See 
also  347;  368,  2,  foot-note. 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCES.  183 

NOTE  2. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain  or  identify  another  noun  or  pro- 
noun denoting  the  same  person  or  thing-,  is  called  an  Appositive  ;  as  Clullius  rex,  *  Clui- 
lius  the  king.' 

NOTK  3.— Any  noun  may  be  modified  like  the  subject. 

NOTE  4. — Sometimes  adverbs  occur  as  modifiers  of  nouns: 

Non  ignari  sumus  ante  malorum,  we  are  not  ignorant  of  PAST  misfortunes, 
\Terg. 

360.  The  SIMPLE  PREDICATE  must  be  either  a  verb,  or  the 
copula  sum  with  a  noun  or  adjective  : 

Miltiades  est  accusatus,  Miltiades  WAS  ACCUSED.  Nep.  Tii  es  testis,  you  ABE  A 
WITNESS.  Cic.  Fortuna  caeca  est,  fortune  is  BLIND.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— Like  sum,  several  other  verbs  sometimes  uni!e  with  a  noun  or  an  adjective 
to  form  the  predicate ;  see  362,  2.  A  noun  or  an  adjective  thus  used  is  called  a  Predi- 
cate Noun  or  Predicate  Adjective. 

NOTE  2. — Sum  with  an  adverb  sometimes  forms  the  predicate : 

Omnia  recte  sunt,  all  things  are  EIGHT.  Cic. 

361.  The  COMPLEX  PREDICATE  consists  of  the  simple  predicate 
with  its  modifiers : 

Miltiades  Athends  llberavit,  Miltiades  liberated  ATHEISTS.  Nep.  Laborl 
student,  they  devote  themselves  TO  LABOR.  Caes.  Me  rogavit  sente?itiam,  Tie 
asked  ME  MY  OPINION.  Cic.  Pons  iter  hostibus  dedit,  tfye  bridge  furnished 
A  PASSAGE  TO  THE  ENEMY.  Liv.  Bella  feUciter  gessit,  Tie  waged  wars  SUC- 
CESSFULLY. Cic.  In  Tils  castrls  moritur,  he  dies  (where  ?)  IN  THIS  CAMP.  Liv. 
Vere  convenere,  tTiey  assembled  (when  ?)  IN  THE  SPRING.  Liv. 

1.  The  Predicate,  when  a  verb,  is  thus  modified — 

1)  By  an  ACCUSATIVE  :  Athends  llberavit. 

2)  By  a  DATIVE  :  Laborl  student. 

3)  By  two  ACCUSATIVES  :  Me  rogavit  sententiam. 

4)  By  an  ACCUSATIVE,  and  a  DATIVE  :  Iter  hostibus  dedit. 

5)  By  an  ADVERB  :  FeUciter  gessit. 

6)  By  an  ADVERBIAL  PHRASE  :  In  Tils  castrls  moritur. 

NOTE  1.— Still  other  modifiers  occur  with  special  predicates;  see  406,  409,  41O, 
423. 

NOTE  2.— No  one  predicate  admits  all  the  modifiers  here  given.  Thus  only  transi- 
tive verbs  admit  an  Accusative  (371) ;  only  intransitive  verbs,  a  Dative  alone  (384, 1.) ; 
and  only  special  verbs,  two  Accusatives  (374). 

2.  A  PREDICATE  NOUN  is  modified  like  the  subject : 

Haec  virtus  omnium  est  reglna  virtutum,  this  virtue  is  the  queen  OF  ALL 
VIRTUES.  Cic.  See  also  359,  notes  1  and  3.  « 

3.  A  PREDICATE  ADJECTIVE  is  modified — 

1)  By  an  ADVERB  :  Satis  humilis  est,  Tie  is  SUFFICIENTLY  humble.   Liv. 

2)  By  an  OBLIQUE  CASE  :  Avidi  laudis  fuerunt,  they  were  desirous  OF  PRAISE. 
Cic.    Omni  aetdtl  mors  est  communis,  death  is  common  TO  EVERY  AGE.   Cic, 
Dlgnl  sunt  amicitid,  they  are  worthy  OF  FRIENDSHIP.   Cic. 

NOTE.— Any  adjective  may  be  modified  like  the  predicate  adjective : 

Eques  Koraanus  satis  lltteratus,  a  Roman  knight  sufficiently  literary.  Cic. 


184  SYNTAX  OF  NOUNS. 

CHAPTEK  II. 
SYNTAX    OF    NOUNS. 


SECTION    I. 

AGREEMENT     OF     NOUNS. 

RULE  I.— Predicate  Nouns.1 

362.  A  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  the 
same  person  or  thing  agrees  with  it  in  CASE  : 2  • 

Brutus  cv.stos*  llbertatis  fuit,  Brutus  was  the  GUARDIAN  of  liberty.  Liv. 
Servius  rex,  est  declaratus,  Serving  was  declared  KING.  Liv.  Orestem  se  esse 
dixit,  he  said  that  lie  was  ORESTES.  Cic.  See  360,  note  1. 

NOTE.— This  rule  applies  also  to  nouns  predicated  of  pronouns: 4 

Ego  sum  nuntius,  lam  a  messenger.  Liv. 

1.  A  Predicate  Noun  with  different  forms  for  different  genders  must 
agree  in  GENDER  as  well  as  in  CASE  : 

Usus  magister5  est,  experience  is  AN  INSTRUCTOR.  Cic.  Historia  est  ma- 
t/istra5  (not  magister),  history  is  AN  INSTRUCTRESS.  Cic. 

2.  PREDICATE  NOUNS  are  most  frequent  with  the  following  verbs : 

1)  With  sum  and  a  few  intransitive  verbs — evddo,  exsisto,  appareo,  and 
the  like : 

Homo  magnus  evaserat,  Tie  had  become  (turned  out)  A  GREAT  MAN.  Cic. 
Exstitit  mndex  llbertatis,  lie  became  (stood  forth)  THE  DEFENDER  of  liberty. 
Cic.  See  also  examples  under  the  rule. 

2)  With  Passive  Verbs  of  appointing,  making,  naming,  regarding,  es- 
teeming, and  the  like : 

Servius  rex  est  declaratus,  Servius  was  declared  KING.  Liv.  Mundus  civi- 
tds  exlstimatur,  the  world  is  regarded  as  A  STATE.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — In  the  poets,  Predicate  Nouns  are  used  with  great  freedom  after  verbs  of  a 
great  variety  of  significations.  Thus  with  audio  =  appellor  : 

Rex  audisti,  you  have  oeen  catted  KING  ;  i.  e.,  have  heard  yourself  so  called.  Hor. 
Ego  divum  incedo  reglna,  I  walk  AS  QUEEN  of  the  gods.  Verg. 


For1  convenience  of  reference,  the  Rules  will  be  presented  in  a  body  on  page  324. 

For  Predicate  Genitive,  see  401. 

In  these  examples  custos,  rex,  and  Orestem  are  all  predicate  nouns,  and  agree  in 
respectively  with  Brutus,  Servius,  and  sS  (536). 

As  all  substantive  pronouns  have  the  construction  of  nouns;  see  182. 

Observe  that  in  usus  magister  est,  the  masculine  form,  magister,  is  used  to  agree 
in  gender  with  UBUS;  while  in  historia  est  magistra,  the  feminine  form,  magistra,  is 
used  to  agree  in  gender  with  historia. 


APPOSITIVES.  185 

NOTE  2.— For  Predicate  Accusative,  see  3*73, 1. 

NOTE  3.— The  Dative  of  the  object  for  which  (390),  pro  with  the  Ablative,  and  loco 
or  numero  (or  in  numero)  with  the  Genitive,  are  often  kindred  in  force  to  Predicate 
Nouns :  hostl,  pro  hoste,  loco  Jiostis,  numero  (or  in  numero)  hostium, '  for  an  enemy,' 
or  'as  an  enemy': 

Fuit  omnibus  bond,  it  was  A  BENEFIT  (lit.,  FOR  A  BENEFIT)  to  all.  Cic.  Sicilia 
nobis  pro  aerdrio  fuit,  Sicily  was  A  TREASURY  (FOR  A  TREASURY)  for  us.  Cic.  Quaes- 
tor! parentis  loco  fuit,  lie  was  A  PARENT  (lit.,  IN  THE  PLACE  OF  A  PARENT)  to  the  questor. 
Cic.  Is  tibi  parentis  numero  fuit,  he  icas  A  PARENT  to  you.  Cic.  See  also  Predi- 
cate Genitive,  401. 

3.  PREDICATE  NOUNS  are  used  not  only  with  finite  verbs,  but  also  with 
INFINITIVES  and  PARTICIPLES,  and  sometimes  without  verb  or  participle : 

Declaratus  rex  Numa,  Numa  having  been  declared  KING.  Liv.  Caninio 
consule,  Caninius  BEING  CONSUL.  Cic.  See  431,  also  Orestem  under  the  rule. 

NOTE  1.— For  a  PREDICATE  NOMINATIVE  after  the  INFINITIVE  esse,  see  536,  2, 1). 
NOTE  2.— For  an  INFINITIVE  or  a  CLAUSE  instead  of  a  Predicate  Noun;  see  539;  501. 

RULE  II.— Appcsitives. 

363.  An  Appositive  agrees  in  CASE  with  the  noun  or 
pronoun  which  it  qualifies : 

Cluilius  rex  moritur,  Cluilius  THE  KING  dies.  Liv.  Urbes  Karthdgo 
atque  Numantia,  the  cities  CARTHAGE  and  NUMANTIA.  Cic.  Saguntum, 
foederatam  cwitatem,  expugnavit,  he  took  Saguntum,  an  allied  TOWN.  Liv. 
See  359,  note  2. 

1.  An  Appositive  with  different  forms  for  different  genders  must  agree 
in  GENDER  as  well  as  in  CASE  : 

Cluilius  rex,1  Cluilius  THE  ZING.  Liv.  Venus  reginaj-  Venus  THE  QUEEN. 
Hor. 

2.  An  Appositive  often  agrees  with  the  pronoun  implied  in  the  ending 
of  the  verb : 

Hostis 2  hostem  occldere  volui,  /,  AN  ENEMY,  wished  to  slay  an  enemy.  Liv. 

3.  Appositives  are  kindred  in  force — 

1)  Generally  to  EELATIVE  clauses : 

%    Cluilius  rex,  Cluilius  (who  was)  THE  KING.  Liv. 

2)  Sometimes  to  other  SUBORDINATE  clauses,3  as  TEMPORAL,  CONCESSIVE,  etc. : 
Fimus  puer  didicit,  Furius  learned  WHEN  HE  WAS  A  BOY  or  AS  A  BOY.   Cic. 

Jumus  aedem  dictator  dedicavit,  Junius  dedicated  the  temple  WHEN  DICTATOR. 
Liv. 

4.  By  SYNESIS  4 — a  CONSTRUCTION  ACCORDING  TO  SENSE  : 

1  See  363, 1.  foot-note. 

2  Hostis  agrees  with  ego,  implied  in  volul,  'I  wished1;  see  358,  foot-note. 
8  This  construction  is  sometimes  called  Adverbial  Apposition. 

4  Bee  Figures  of  Speech,  636,  IV,,  4, 


186  GENERAL   VIEW  OF  CASES. 

1)  Possessives  admit  a  Genitive  in  apposition  with  the  Genitive  of  the  pro- 
noun implied  in  them : 

Tua  ipslus l  amlcitia,  your  OWN  friendship.  Cic.  Meum  soil  us  peccatum, 
my  fault  ALONE.  Cic.  Noinen  meum  absentis,  my  name  IN  MY  ABSENCE.  Cic. 

2)  Locatives  admit  as  an  Appositive  a  Locative  Ablative  (411,  425),  with 
or  without  a  preposition : 

Albae  constiterunt  in  urbe  opportunaf  they  halted  at  Alba,  A  CONVENIENT 
CITY.  Cic.  Corinthl,  Achaiae  urbe,  at  Corinth,  A  CITY  of  Achaia.  Tac. 

6.  CLAUSES. — A  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  clause, 
or  a  clause  in  apposition  with  a  noun  or  pronoun : 

Nos,  id 3  quod  debet,  patria  delectat,  our  country  delights  us,  as  it  ought. 
Cic.  Omnes  interficl  jussit,  munlmentum  s  ad  praesens,  he  ordered  them  all 
to  be  put  to  death,  A  MEANS  OF  PROTECTION  for  the  present.  Tac.  For  clauses 
in  apposition  with  nouns  or  pronouns,  see  499,  3 ;  501,  III. 

364.  PARTITIVE  APPOSITION. — The  parts  may  be  in  apposition 
with  the  whole,  or  the  whole  in  apposition  with  the  parts : 

Duo  reges,  ille  bello,  Me  pace,  clvitatem  auxerunt,  two  Icings  advanced  the 
state,  THE  FORMER  by  war,  the  LATTER  by  peace.  Liv.  Ptolemaeus  et  Cleopatra, 
reges 4  Aegyptl,  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra,  RULERS  of  Egypt.  Liv. 

SECTION    II. 

GENERAL   VIEW   OF   CASES. 

365.  Cases,  in  accordance  with  their  general  force,  may  be  ar- 
ranged and  characterized  as  follows : 

I.  Nominative,  Case  of  the  Subject. 

II.  Vocative,  Case  of  Address. 

III.  Accusative,  Case  of  Direct  Object. 

IV.  Dative,  Case  of  Indirect  Object. 

V.  Genitive,  Case  of  Adjective  Relations. 

VI.  Ablative,  Case  of  Adverbial  Relations.8 

1  Ipslus  agrees  with  tul  (of  you)  involved  in  tua ;  sollus  and  absentia,  with  mel 
involved  in  meum.    The  Genitive  of  ipse,  solus,  unus,  and  omnia  is  often  thus  used. 

2  As  a  Locative  Ablative  is  a  genuine  Locative  in  sense,  there  is  no  special  irregu- 
larity here,  and  in  urbe  opportund  may  be  explained  as  a  separate  modifier  of  the  verb: 
4  They  halted  at  Alba,  at  a  convenient  eity?   Thus  explained,  it  is  not  an  appositi  ve  at  all. 

3  Id  quod  debet,  lit.,  THAT  which  it  owes.    Id  and  munlmentum  are  in  apposition 
respectively  with  nos  delectat  and  omnes  interficl,  and  are  best  explained  as  Accusatives. 
A  Nominative  apparently  in  apposition  with  a  clause  is  generally  best  explained  either  as 
an  appositive  to  some  Nominative,  or  as  the  subject  of  a  separate  clause. 

*  In  the  first  example,  ille  and  hie,  the  parts,  are  in  apposition  with  reges,  the  whole ; 
"but  in  the  second  example,  reges,  the  whole,  is  in  apposition  with  the  parts,  Ptolemaeus 
and  Cleopatra. 

6  This  arrangement  is  adopted  in  the  discussion  of  the  cases,  because,  it  is  thought, 
it  will  best  present  the  force  of  the  several  cases  and  their  relation  to  each  other. 


NOMINATIVE.— VOCATIVE.  187 

366.  The  Nominative,  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative 
have  probably  retained  with  very  slight  modifications  their  original 
force  as  developed  in  the  mother  tongue  from  which  the  Latin  was 
derived.1 

367.  The  Ablative  combines  within  itself  the  separate  offices 
of  three  cases  which  were  originally  distinct : 2 

1.  The  Ablative  proper,  denoting  the  relation  FROM — the  place 
FROM  which. 

2.  The  Locative,  denoting  the  relation  IN,  AT — the  place  IN  or  AT 
which. 

3.  The  Instrumental,  denoting  the  relation  WITH,  BY — the  instru* 
ment  or  means  WITH  or  BY  which. 

SECTION    III. 

NOMINATIVE.— VOCATIVE. 

I.  NOMINATIVE. 
RULE  IH.— Subject  Nominative. 

368.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  put  in  the  Nomina- 
tive : 3 

Servius  regnavit,  SERVIUS  reigned.  Liv.  Patent  portae,  THE  GATES  are 
open.  Cic.  Rex  vieit,  THE  KING  conquered.  Liv.  Ego  reges  ejecl,  vos 
tyrannos  introducitis,  I  have  banished  kings,  YOU  introduce  tyrants.  Cic. 

1.  The  subject  is  always  a  substantive,  a  pronoun,  or  some  word  or 
clause  used  substantively ; 4  see  examples  under  the  rule. 

2.  A  pronominal  subject  is  always  expressed  or  implied  in  the  ending 
of  the  verb : 5 

1  That  is,  in  the  primitive  Indo-European  tongue,  from  which  have  been  derived, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  not  only  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Sanskrit,  but  also  the  English, 
French,  German,  and  indeed  nearly  all  the  languages  of  modern  Europe.    Upon  the  gen- 
eral subject  of  Cases,  their  original  formation  and  meaning,  see  Bopp,  I.,  pp.  242-519; 
Merguet,  pp.  17-117;  Penka,  Hubschmann,  Holzweissig,  Delbriick,  and,  among  the  earlier 
writers,  Hartung,  *  Ueber  die  Casus,'  etc.,  and  Kumpel,  '  Casuslehre.' 

2  See  Delbruck,  '  Ablativ,  Localis,  Instrumentalist 

3  For  the  Subject  of  the  Infinitive,  see  536.    For  the  Agreement  of  the  verb  with 
its  subject,  see  46O. 

4  For  clauses  used  substantively,  see  540. 

6  See  247.  Thus  moneo  means  /(not  you,  he,  or  we,  but  /)  instruct.  Indeed, 
every  verb  contains  a  pronominal  subject  in  itself,  and  in  general  it  is  necessary  to  add 
a  separate  subject  only  when  it  would  otherwise  be  doubtful  to  whom  the  implied  pro- 
noun refers.  Thus  regndvit,  '  he  reigned,'  ie  complete  of  itself,  if  the  context  shows  to 


L88  VOCATIVE. 

Discipulos  moneo l  ut  studia  ament,  I  instruct  pupils  to  love  (that  THEY 
may  love)  their  studies.  Quint.  Non  scliolae,  sed  vltae  disciwws,  WE  learn 
not  for  the  school,  but  for  life.  Sen. 

NOTE.-— A  separate  pronominal  subject  may,  however,  be  added  for  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness, emphasis,  or  contrast,  as  in  the  fourth  example  under  the  rule. 

3.  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted,  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied,  es- 
pecially if  it  is  est  or  sunt  : 

Ecce  tuae  litterae,  lo  your  letter  (comes).  Cic.  Tot  sententiae,  there  are 
(sunt)  so  many  opinions.  Ter.  Consul  profectus  (est),  the  consul  set  out.  Liv. 

NOTE  1. — The  verb  facio  is  often  omitted  in  short  sentences  and  clauses: 

Melius  hi,  quam  vos,  these  have  done  better  than  you.  Cic.  Eecte  ille,  he  does 
rightly.  Cic.  Cotta  fmem,  Cotta  closed,  lit.,  made  an  end.  Cic.  So  also  in  Livy 
after  nihil  aliud  (amplius,  minus,  etc.)  quam,  'nothing  other  (more,  less,  etc.)  than'  = 
'merely1;  nihil  praeterquam,  'nothing  except '  =  ' merely ':  Nihil  aliud  quam  stete- 
runt,  they  merely  stood  (did  nothing  other  than).  Liv. 

NOTE  2.— Certain  forms  of  expression  often  dispense  with  the  verb : 

Quid,  what?  quid  enim,  what  indeed?  quid  ergo,  what  then?  quid  quod,  what  of 
the  fact  that?  quid  plura,  why  more,  or  why  shall  I  say  more?  ne  plura,  not  to  say 
more ;  ne  multa,  not  to  say  much ;  quid  hoc  ad  me,  what  is  this  to  me  ?  nihil  ad  rem, 
nothing  to  the  subject. 

NOTE  3.— For  the  Predicate  Nominative,  see  363. 

NOTE  4.— For  the  Nominative  as  an  Appositive,  see  363. 

NOTE  5.— For  the  Nominative  m  Exclamations,  see  381,  note  3. 

n.  VOCATIVE. 
RULE  IV.  -Case  of  Address. 

369.  The  name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  is  put 
in  the  Vocative  : 

Perge,  Laell,  proceed,  LAELIUS.  Cic.  Quid  est,  Catilina^  why  is  it,  CATI  • 
LINE  ?  Cic.  Tuum  est,  Servi,  regnum,  the  kingdom  is  yours,  SERVIUS.  Liv. 
0  dii  immortales,  0  immortal  GODS.  Cic. 

1.  An  Interjection  may  or  may  not  accompany  the  Vocative. 

2.  In  poetry,  and  sometimes  in  prose,  the  Nominative  in  apposition  with 
the  subject  occurs  where  we  should  expect  the  Vocative : 

Audi  tu,  populus  Albanus,  hear  ye,  Alban  PEOPLE.  Liv. 

3.  Conversely,  the  Vocative  by  attraction  sometimes  occurs  in  poetry  where 
we  should  expect  the  Nominative : 

Quibus,  Hector,  ab  oris  exspectdte  vems,  from  what  shores,  Hector,  do  you  ANX- 
IOUSLY AWAITED  come  f  Verg.  Macte  nova  virtute,  puer,  a  blessing  on  your  new 
valor,  boy  (lit.,  be  ENLAEGED  by;  supply  esto).  Verg. 

whom  the  pronoun  he  refers ;  if  not,  the  noun  must  be  added :  Servius  regndvit,  lit.,  he, 
Servius,  reigned,  or  Servius,  he  reigned.    In  the  fourth  example  under  the  rule,  ego  and 
yds,  though  already  implied  in  the  form  of  the  verte,  are  expressed  for  emphasis.    In 
impersonal  verbs  the  subject '  it.'  in  English,  Is  implied  in  the  personal  ending  t. 
1  See  preceding  foot-note. 


ACCUSATIVE.  189 

SECTION    IV. 

ACCUSATIVE. 

370.  The  Accusative  is  used l — 

I.  As  the  Direct  Object  of  an  Action; 
II.  In  an  Adverbial  Sense — with  or  without  Prepositions; 
III.  In  Exclamations — with  or  without  Interjections. 

NOTE  1.— For  the  Predicate  Accusative,  see  362  and  373, 1. 

NOTE  2.-— For  the  Accusative  in  Apposition,  see  363. 

NOTE  8.— For  the  Accusative  with  Prepositions,  see  433. 

NOTE  4.— For  the  Accusative  as  the  Subject  of  an  Infinitive,  see  536. 

I.  ACCUSATIVE  AS  DIKECT  OBJECT. 
RULE  V.— Direct  Object. 

371.  The  Direct  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the 
Accusative : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  THE  WORLD.  Cic.  Libera 
rem  publicam,  free  THE  REPUBLIC.  Cic.  PopulT  Roman!  salutem  defendite, 
defend  THE  SAFETY  of  the  Roman  people.  Cic. 

I.  The  DIRECT  OBJECT  may  be — 

1.  An  External  Object,  the  person  or  thing  on  which  the  action  of  the 
verb  is  directly  exerted,  as  salutem  above. 

2.  An  Internal  Object;  i.  e.,  one  already  contained  or  implied  in  the 
action  itself.     This  embraces  two  varieties  : 

1)  In  a  STRICT  SENSE,  the  Cognate  Accusative,  an  object  having  a  mean- 
ing cognate  or  kindred  to  that  of  the  verb : 

Sermtutem  servire,2  to  serve  in  bondage  (lit.,  to  serve  A  SERVITUDE).   Ter. 

2)  In  a  FREER  SENSE,  the  Accusative  of  Effect,  the  object  produced  by 
the  action : 

Librum  scrlbere,  to  write  A  BOOK.   Cic. 

NOTE. — Participles  in  dus,  verbal  adjectives  in  bundus,  and  in  Plautus  a 
few  verbal  nouns,  occur  with  the  accusative : 

Vitabundus  castra,  avoiding  the  camp.  Liv.  Quid  tibi  hanc  curatiost 
(curatiO  est) 3  rem  =  cur  hanc  rem  curas,  what  care  have  you  of  this  ?  Plaut. 

1  The  Accusative  is  probably  the  oldest  of  all  the  oblique  cases  known  to  our  family 
of  languages,  and  was  therefore  originally  the  sole  modifier  of  the  verb,  expressing  in  a 
vague  and  general  way  several  relations  now  recognized  as  distinct.    This  theory  ac- 
counts for  the  great  variety  of  constructions  in  which  the  Accusative  is  used  in  Latin. 
See  Curtius,  lZur  Chronologic,'  pp.  71-74;  Holzweissig,  pp.  84-38. 

2  The  pupil  will  observe  that  the  idea  of  servitutem,  4  servitude,'  *  service,'  ia  con- 
tained in  the  verb  servire^  *  to  serve,'  *  to  be  a  slave  or  servant.' 

»  See  8  7,  note. 


190  ACCUSATIVE. 

II.  The  COGNATE  ACCUSATIVE  is  generally — (1)  a  noun  with  an  adjective 
or  other  modifier,  or  (2)  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective.     It  is  used  quite 
freely  both  with  transitive  and  with  intransitive  verbs,  and  sometimes  even 
with  verbs  in  the  passive  voice : 

Earn  vitam  vlvere,  to  live  ihat  LIFE.  Cic.  Mirum  somniare  somnium,  to 
dream  a  wonderful  DREAM.  Plaut.  Eadem  peccat,  Tie  makes  THE  SAME  MIS- 
TAKES. J  Cic.  Hoc  studet  unum,  he  studies  this  ONE  THING  (this  one  study). 
Hor.  Perfidum  rldens  Venus,  Venus  smiling  A  PERFIDIOUS  SMILE.  Hor.  Id 
assentior,  /  assent  to  THIS  (I  give  THIS  assent).  Cic.  Idem  gloriarl,  to  make 
THE  SAME  BOAST.  Cic.  Quid  possunt,  HOW  powerful  are  they,  or  WHAT  power 
have  they  ?  Caes.  Ea  monemur,  we  are  admonished  OF  THESE  THINGS.8  Cic. 
Mhil  motl  sunt,  they  were  NOT  AT  ALL  moved.  Liv. 

NOTE.— Here  may  be  mentioned  the  following  kindred  constructions : 

Vox  hominem  soiiat,  the  voice  sounds  HUMAN.  Verg.    Saltare  Cyclopa,  to  dance 

THE  CYCLOPS.  Hor.    Longam  viam  ire,  to  go  A  long  WAY.  Verg.    Bellum  pugnare,  to 

fight  A  BATTLE.  Verg. 

III.  SPECIAL  VERBS. — Many  verbs  of  FEELING  or  EMOTION,  of  TASTE  and 
SMELL,  admit  the  Accusative : 

Honores  desperat,  he  despairs  of  HONORS.  Cic.  Haec  gemebant,  they  were 
sighing  over  THESE  THINGS.  Cic.  Detrimenta  rldet,  he  laughs  at  LOSSES.  Hor. 
Olet  unguenta,  he  has  the  odor  of  PERFUMES.  Ter.  OratiO  redolet  antiquitdtem^ 
the  oration  smacks  of  ANTIQUITY.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — Such  verbs  are:  desperd,  to  despair  of;  doled,  to  grieve  for;  gemd,  to  sigh 
over;  horred,  to  shudder  at;  lacrimd,  to  weep  over;  maered,  to  mourn  over;  mlror, 
to  wonder  at;  rlded,  to  laugh  at;  sitid,  to  thirst  for,  etc.;  oled,  to  have  the  odor  of; 
sapid,  to  savor  of,  whether  used  literally  or  figuratively.3 

NOTE  2.— Many  verbs  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  are  sometimes  transitive  and  some- 
times intransitive ;  see  auged,  durd,  incipid,  laxd,  rud,  suppeditd,  turbo,  etc.,  in  the 
Dictionary. 

NOTE  8. — Many  verbs  which  are  usually  rendered  by  transitive  verbs  in  English 
are  intransitive  in  Latin,  and  thus  admit  only  an  indirect  object  or  some  special  con- 
struction ;  see  385. 

NOTE  4.— The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  often  omitted,  when  it  can  be  easily  sup- 
plied :  moved  —  moved  me, '  I  move  (myself) 1 ;  vertit  =  vertit  se, '  he  turns  (himself) ' : 

Castrls  non  movit,  he  did  not  move  from  his  camp.  Liv.  Jam  verterat  fortuna, 
fortune  had  already  changed,  Liv. 

NOTE  5.— For  the  Passive  Construction,  see  464. 

IV.  An  INFINITIVE  or  a  CLAUSE  may  be  used  as  Direct  Object : 

Imperdre  cupiunt,  they  desire  TO  RULE.   Just.    Opto  ut  id  audidtis,  I  desire 

THAT  YOU  MAY  HEAR  THIS.  Cic. 

1  Peccat, '  he  makes  a  mistake ' ;  idem  peccat, '  he  makes  the  same  mistake,1  where 
idem  represents  idem  peccatum. 

2  Literally,  we  are  admonished  THESE  THINGS,  i.  e.,  these  admonitions. 

3  Observe  that  with  the  Accusative  desperd  means  not  'to  despair,1  but  'to  despair 
of,1  and  is  accordingly  transitive  ;  doled,  not  *  to  grieve,1  but '  to  grieve  for,1  etc.    With 
some  of  the  verbs  here  given  the  object  is  properly  a  Cognate  Accusative. 


ACCUSATIVE.  191 

372.  Many  COMPOUNDS  of  intransitive  verbs  with  prepositions, 
especially  compounds  of  verbs  of  motion  with  circum,  per,  praeter, 
trans,  and  super,  take  the  Accusative : 

Murmur  contionem  pervasit,  a  murmur  went  through  THE  ASSEMBLY.  Liv. 
Ehenum  transierunt,  they  crossed  (went  across)  THE  KHINE.  Caes.  Circum- 
stant  sendtum,  they  stand  around  THE  SENATE.  Cic.  Hereditdtem  oblre,  to 
enter  upon  THE  INHERITANCE.  Cic.  Eas  ndtiones  adlre,  to  go  to  those  NATIONS. 
Caes.  Undam  innatare,  to  float  upon  THE  WAVE.  Verg.  Tela  exlre,1  to  avoid 
THE  WEAPONS.  Verg.  Gallds  praecedunt,  they  surpass  THE  GAULS.  Caes. 

RULE  VI.— Two  Accusatives— Same  Person. 

373.  Yerbs  of  MAKING,  CHOOSING,  CALLING,  EEGAEDLNG, 
SHOWING,  and  the  like,  admit  two  Accusatives  of  the  same 
person  or  thing : 

Hamilcarem  imperatorem  fecerunt,  they  made  Hamilcar  COMMANDER. 
Nep.  Ancum  regem  populus  creavit,  the  people  elected  Ancus  KING.  Liv. 
Summum  consilium  appellarunt  Sencttum,  they  called  their  highest  council 
SENATE.  Cic.  Se  praestitit  propugnatorem  llbertatis,  he  showed  himself 
THE  CHAMPION  of  liberty.  Cic.  Flaccum  habuit  collegam,  he  had  Flaccus  AS 
COLLEAGUE.  Nep.  Socrates  totms  mundl  se  civem  arbitrabatur,  Socrates 
considered  himself  A  CITIZEN  of  the  whole  world.  Cic. 

1.  PREDICATE  ACCUSATIVE. — One  of  the  two  Accusatives  is  the  Direct  Object^ 
and  the  other  an  essential  part  of  the  Predicate.    The  latter  may  be  called  a 
Predicate  Accusative  ;  see  362. 

NOTE  1. — HabeO, '  to  have,1  admits  two  Accusatives,  but  when  it  means  '  to  regard,' 
it  usually  takes,  instead  of  the  Predicate  Accusative,  the  Dative  of  the  object  for  which 
(384),  the  Ablative  with  in  or  pro,  or  the  Genitive  with  loco,  numero  or  in  numero: 
ludibrio  habere,  'to  regard  as  an  object  of  ridicule';  pro  hoste  habere,  in  hostibua 
habere,  loco  hostium  hdbere,  numero  or  in  numero  hostium  habere,  'to  regard  as  an 
enemy.'  These  constructions  also  occur  with  other  verbs  meaning  to  regard : 

Ea  honorl  habent,  they  regard  these  things  AS  AN  HONOR.  Sail.  Ilium  pro  hosto 
habere,  to  regard  Mm  AS  AN  ENEMY.  Caes.  Jam  pro  facto  habere,  to  regard  it  AS 
already  DONE.  Cic.  In  hostium  numero  habuit,  he  regarded  them  AS  ENEMIES  (lit.,  in 
the  number  of,  etc.).  Caes.  Me  pro  deridiculo  putat,  he  regards  me  AS  AN  OBJECT  OP 
EIDICTJLE.  Ter. 

NOTE  2.— The  Predicate  Accusative  is  sometimes  an  adjective: 

Homines  caecos  reddit  avaritia,  avarice  renders  men  BLIND.  Cic.  Templa  deorum 
sancta  habebat,  he  regarded  the  temples  of  the  gods  AS  SACEED.  Nep. 

2.  In  the  PASSIVE  these  verbs  take  two  Nominatives — a  Subject  and  a  dedi- 
cate— corresponding  to  the  two  Accusatives  of  the  Active : 

Servius  rex  est  declaratus,  Servius  was  declared  KING.  Liv.    See  also  362,  2. 

1  Observe  that  an  intransitive  verb  may  become  transitive  by  being  compounded, 
with  a  preposition  which  does  not  take  the  Accusative. 


192  ACCUSATIVE. 

RULE  VH.— Two  Accusatives— Person  and  Thing. 

374.  Some  verbs  of  ASKING,  DEMANDING,  TEACHING,  and 
CONCEALING,  admit  two  Accusatives — one  of  the  person 
and  the  other  of  the  thing : 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  me  MY  OPINION.  Cic.  Philosophia  nos 
res  omnes  docuit,  philosophy  has  taught  us  all  THINGS.  Cic.  Auxilia  regem 
orabant,  they  asked  AUXILIARIES  from  the  king.  Liv.  Pacem  te  poscimus, 
we  demand  PEACE  of  you.  Verg.  Non  te  celavl  sermonem,  I  did  not  conceal 
from  you  THE  CONVERSATION.  Cic. 

1.  In  the  PASSIVE  the  PERSON  becomes  the  subject,  and  the  Accusative  or 
the  thing  is  retained : 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  me  MY  OPINION.  Cic.  Ego  sententiam  ro- 
gatus  sum,  /  was  asked  MY  OPINION.  Cic.  Artes  edoctus  fuerat,  he  had  been 
taught  THE  ARTS.  Liv. 

2.  Two  ACCUSATIVES  are  generally  used  with  celo^  doced,  edoced  ;  often  with 
rogd,  posed,  reposed;  sometimes  with  dedoced,  exposed,  flagito,  ord,  etc.,  con- 
suld,  interrogd,  percontor  ;  rarely  with  moned,  admotied,  &ndpostulo. 

NOTE  1.— Celd,  'to  conceal,'  takes— (1)  in  the  Active  generally  two  Accusatives,  as 
under  the  rule,  but  sometimes  the  Accusative  of  the  person  and  the  Ablative  of  the 
thing  with  de;  (2)  in  the  Passive,  the  Accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  the  Ablative 
vrithde: 

Me  de  hoc  libra  celavit,  he  kept  me  ignorant  OF  this  BOOK.  Cic.  Id  celarl,  to  be 
kept  ignorant  or  THIS.  Nep.  Celari  de  consilio,  to  be  kept  ignorant  OF  THE  PLAN. 
Cic. 

NOTE  2. — Doced  and  edoceo  generally  follow  the  rule,1  but  sometimes  they  take  the 
Accusative  of  the  person  and  the  Ablative  of  the  thing  with  or  without  de,*  and  some- 
times the  Accusative  3  of  the  person  with  the  Infinitive  or  a  Subjunctive  Clause: 

De  sua  re  me  docet,  he  informs  me  IN  REGARD  TO  his  CASE.  Cic.  Litterls  Graecls 
doctus,  instructed  IN  Greek  LITERATURE.  Sail.  Socratem  f.dibus 3  docuit,  he  taught 
Socrates  (with)  THE  LYBE.  Cic.  Te  sapere  docet,  he  teaches  you  TO  BE  WISE.  Cic. 

NOTE  3. — Most  verbs  of  asking  and  demanding  sometimes  take  two  Accusatives, 
but  verbs  of  asking,  questioning,  generally  take  the  Accusative  of  the  person*  and 
the  Ablative  of  the  thing*  with  de,  and  verbs  of  imploring,  demanding,  generally  the 
Accusative  of  the  thing  4  and  the  Ablative  of  the  person  *  with  a  or  ab : 

Te  his  de  rebus  interrogo,  /  ask  you  IN  REGARD  TO  these  THINGS.  Cic.  Victoriam 
ab  dils  exposcere,  to  implore  victory  FROM  THE  GODS.  Caes.  Id  ab  eo  flagitare,  to  de- 
mand this  FROM  HIM.  Caes. 

1  Other  verbs  of  teaching— erudiO,  instituG,  InformO,  Instruo,  etc.— generally  take 
the  Ablative  of  the  thing  with  or  without  a  preposition,  as  in  or  de  ;  see  Dictionary. 

2  Doced,  in  the  sense  of  inform,  takes  de  with  the  Ablative. 

3  The  Accusative  may  be  omitted.    With  Jidibus  supply  canere. 

4  The  Accusative  or  Ablative  of  the  person  is  often  omitted,  and  a  clause  often  takes 
the  place  of  the  Accusative  or  Ablative  of  the  thing.    For  examples  and  for  special  con- 
structions, see,  in  the  Dictionary,  conwld,  interrogo^  rogd;  alaojlaffito,  drd,  posco,  ev> 
posed,  and  reposed. 


ACCUSATIVE.  193 

NOTE  4.— Peto  and  postulo  generally  take  the  Accusative  of  the  thing  *  and  the 
Ablative  of  the  person  with  a  or  a&/  quaero,  the  J.ccwsaW^e  of  the  thing1  and  the 
Ablative  of  the  person  with  e  or  eo?,  «,  a&,  or  d£  : 

Pacem  a&  Romanls  petierunt,  they  asked  peace  FROM  THE  ROMANS.  Caes.  Aliquid 
ab  amlels  postulare,  to  demand  something  FROM  FRIENDS.  Cic.  Quaerit  ex  sold  ea,  etc., 
he  asks  OF  HIM  IN  PRIVATE  (from  him  alone)  those  questions,  etc.  Caes. 

375.  A  NEUTER  PRONOUN  or  ADJECTIVE  as  a  Cognate 3  Accusative  oc- 
curs in  connection  with  a  Direct  Object  with  many  verbs  which  do  not 
otherwise  take  two  Accusatives : 

Hoc  te  hortor,  /  exhort  you  to  THIS,  /  give  you  THIS  exhortation.  Cio.  J?a3 
monemur,  we  are  admonished  of  THESE  THINGS.  Cic.  So  with  velle,  Caes.,  B. 
G.  I.,  34. 

376.  A  few  COMPOUNDS  of  trans,  circum,  and  ad  admit  two  Accusa- 
tives, dependent  the  one  upon  the  verb,  the  other  upon  the  preposition : 

Ib'erum  copias  trajecit,  Tie  led  Ms  forces  across  THE  EBRO.  Liv.  Animum 
advert!  columellam,  I  noticed  (turned  my  mind  to)  A  SMALL  COLUMN.  Cic. 

NOTE.— In  the  Passive  these  compounds  and  some  others  admit  an  Accusative  de- 
pending upon  the  preposition : 

Praetervehor  ostia  Pantagiae,  lam  carried  by  THE  MOUTH  of  the  Pantagias.  Yerg. 
Locum  sum  praetervectus,  I  have  been  carried  by  THE  PLACE.  Cic. 

377.  I*1  POETRY,  rarely  in  prose,  verbs  of  clothing,  unclothing — induo, 
exud,  cingd,  accingo,  indued,  etc. — are  sometimes  used  reflexively  in  the  Pas- 
sive, like  the  Greek  Middle,  and  thus  admit  an  Accusative  : 

Galeam  induitur,  7ie  puts  on  HIS  HELMET.  Verg.  Inutile  ferrum  cingitur, 
he  girds  on  HIS  useless  SWORD.  Verg.  Virgines  longam  indutae  vestem,  maid- 
ens attired  in  long  ROBES.  Liv. 

NOTE.— A  few  other  verbs  sometimes  admit  a  similar  construction  in  the  poets : 
Antlquum  saturata  doldrem,  having  satisfied  her  old  RESENTMENT.  Yerg.    Suspensi 
loculcs  lacerto,  with  SATCHELS  hung  upon  the  arm  (having  hung,  etc.).  Hor.    Pascuntur 
silvds,  they  browse  on  THE  FORESTS.  Yerg. 

II.  ACCUSATIVE  IN  AN  ADVERBIAL  SENSE. 
RULE  VIII.— Accusative  of  Specification. 

378.  A  verb  or  an  adjective  may  take  an  Accusative 
to  define  its  application : 4 

1  The  Ablative  of  the  person  is  often  omitted,  and,  instead  of  the  Accusative  of  the 
thing,  a  clause  is  often  used.    With  postulo  and  quaero  the  Ablative  with  de  occurs. 
For  examples  and  for  other  special  constructions,  see  Dictionary. 

2  See  371,  II. 

3  As  a  rare  exception,  moneo  admits  a  noun  as  the  Accusative  of  the  thing;  see 
Plant.,  Stich.,  1,  2, 1. 

4  The  Accusative  of  Specification  is  closely  related  to  the  Cognate  Accusative  and  to 
the  Poetic  Accusative  after  Passive  verbs  used  reflexively,  both  of  which  readily  pass 
into  an  adverbial  construction.    Thus  capita  in  capita  velamur  and  galeam  in  galeam 


194:  ACCUSATIVE. 

Capita  velamur,  we  have  OUR  HEADS  veiled  (are  veiled  as  to  OUR  HEADS,  or 
have  veiled  OUR  HEADS).  Verg.  Nube  humeros  amictus,  with  HIS  SHOULDERS 
enveloped  in  a  cloud.  Hor.  Miles  fractus  membra  labore,  the  soldier  with 
LIMBS  shattered  with  labor  (broken  as  to  his  limbs).  Hor.  Aeneas  os  deo 
eimilis,  Aeneas  like  a  god  in  APPEARANCE.  Verg. 

1.  In  a  strict  sense,  the  Accusative  of  Specification  generally  specifies  the 
part  to  which  the  action  or  quality  particularly  belongs.    In  this  sense,  it  is 
mostly  poetic,  but  occurs  also  in  prose.     See  Ablative  of  Specification,  424. 

2.  In  a  freer  sense,  this  Accusative  includes  the  adverbial  use  of  partem, 
vicem,  nihil,  of  id  and  genus  in  id  temporis,  id  aetdtis  (at  this  time,  age),  id 
genus,1  omne  genus,  quod  genus  (for  ejus  generis,  etc.),  etc. ;  also  of  secus,  res, 
and  of  many  neuter  pronouns  and  adjectives— hdc,  illud,  id,  quid  (454,  2), 
multum,  summum,  cetera,  rlliqua,  etc.    In  this  sense,  it  is  common  in  prose : 

Maximam  partem  lacte  vlvunt,  they  live  mostly  (as  to  the  largest  PART) 
upon  milk.  Caes.  Locus  id  temporis  vacuus  erat,  the  place  was  AT  THIS  time 
vacant.  Cic.  Aliquid  id  genus1  scrlbere,  to  write  something  OF  this  KIND. 
Cic.  Alias  res  est  improbus,  IN  other  THINGS  (as  to  the  rest)  he  is  unprinci- 
pled. Plaut.  Quaerit,  quid  possint,  he  inquires  now  powerful  they  are.  Caes. 
Quid  venlstl,  WHY  have  you  come  ?  Plaut. 

RULE  IX.— Accusative  of  Time  and  Space. 

379.  DURATION  OF  TIME  and  EXTENT  OF  SPACE  are  ex- 
pressed by  the  Accusative : 

Romulus  septem  et  triginta  regnavit  annos,  Romulus  reigned  thirty-seven 
YEARS.  Liv.  Cyrus  quadraginta  annos  natus  regnare  coepit,  Cyrus  began 
to  reign  (when)  forty  YEARS  old  (having  been  born  forty  YEARS).  Cic.  Qum- 
que  milia  passuum  ambulare,  to  walk  five  MILES.  Cic.  Pedes  octoginta 
distare,  to  be  eighty  FEET  distant.  Caes.  Nix  quattuor  pedes  alta,  snow  four 
FEET  deep.  Liv.  But — 

1.  DURATION  OF  TIME  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Ablative,  or  by  the 
Accusative  with  a  preposition : 

Pugnatum  est  horls  qulnque,  the  battle  was  fought  five  HOURS.  Caes.  Per 
annos  vlgintl  certatum  est,  the  war  was  waged  FOR  twenty  YEARS.  Liv. 

2.  DISTANCE  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Ablative : 

Mllibus  passuum  sex  a  Caesaris  castris  consedit,  he  encamped  AT  THE  DIS- 
TANCE OF  six  MiLEs/wm  Caesar's  camp.  Caes. 

NOTE.— Ao  used  adverbially,  meaning  off,  sometimes  accompanies  the  Ablative : 
Ab  mllibus  passuum  duobus  castra  posuenmt,  they  pitched  their  camp  two  miles 
OFF.  Caes. 

indidtur  are  similar  constructions,  while  quid  in  quaerit  quid  possint  may  be  explained 
either  as  a  Cognate  Accusative  (371,  I.,  2)  or  as  an  Adverbial  Accusative. 

1  Some  grammarians  treat  genus  in  oil  such  cases  as  an  Appositive:  aliquid,  id 
genus,  something,  this  kind;  see  Draeger,  I.,  p.  2, 


ACCUSATIVE.  195 

RULE  X.— Accusative  of  Limit. 

380.  The  PLACE  TO  WHICH  is  designated  by  the  Accusa- 
tive : ' 

I.  Generally  with  a  preposition — ad  or  in  : 

Legiones  ad  urbem  adducit,  he  is  leading  the  legions  TO  or  TOWARD  THE 
CITY.  Cic.  Ad  me  scribunt,  they  are  writing  TO  ME.  Cic.  In  Asiam  redit, 
he  returns  INTO  ASIA.  Nep.  Confugit  in  aram,  lie  fled  TO  THE  ALTAR.  Nep. 

II.  In  names  of  towns  without  a  preposition  : 

Nuntius  Romam  redit,  the  messenger  returns  TO  ROME.  Liv.  Plato  Ta- 
rentum  venit,  Plato  came  TO  TARENTUM.  Cic.  Fugit  Tarquinios,  he  fled  TO 
TARQUINII.  Cic.  But — 

NOTE.— Verbs  meaning  to  collect^  to  come  together,  etc. — convenio,  cogo,  convoco, 
etc.— are  usually  treated  as  verbs  of  motion,  and  thus  take  the  Accusative,  generally  with 
a  preposition ;  but  verbs  meaning  to  place — loco,  collocO,  ponO,  etc. — are  usually  treated 
as  verbs  of  rest,  and  thus  take  the  Ablative  (4/85),  generally  with  a  preposition: 

Unum  in  locum  convenire,  to  meet  IN  one  PLACE.  Caes.  Copias  in  unum  locum 
cogere,  to  collect  forces  IN  one  PLACE.  Caes.  In  alterius  manu  vitam  ponere,  to 
place  one's  life  IN  THE  HAND  of  another.  Cic. 

1.  In  the  NAMES  OP  TOWNS  the  Accusative  with  ad  occurs — (1)  to  denote 
to,  toward,  in  the  direction  of,  into  the  vicinity  o/J  and  (2)  in  contrast  with 
d,  or  ab : 

Tres  sunt  viae  ad  Mutinam,  there  are  three  roads  TO  MUTINA.  Cic.  Ad 
Zamam  pervenit,  Tie  came  TO  THE  VICINITY  or  ZAMA.  Sail.  A  Dianio  ad 
Sinopen,  from  Dianium  TO  SINOPE.  Cic. 

2.  Like  NAMES  OP  TOWNS  are  used — 

1)  The  Accusatives  domum,  domos,  rus: 

Sclpio  domum  reductus  est,  Scipio  was  conducted  HOME.  Cic.  Domos  ab- 
ductl,  led  TO  THEIR  HOMES.  Liv.  Eus  evolare,  to  hasten  INTO  THE  COUNTRY. 
Cic.  Domum  reditio,  a  return  HOME.  Caes. 

2)  Sometimes  the  Accusative  of  names  of  islands  and  peninsulas  : 
Latona  confugit  Delum,  Latona  fled  TO  DELOS.   Cic.    Pervenit  Chersonfr 

sum,  he  went  TO  THE  CHERSONESUS.   Nep. 

3)  Rarely  a  few  other  Accusatives,  as  exsequiaSy  infitias,  etc. : 2 
Ille  Infitids  Ibit,  Tie  will  deny  (will  proceed  TO  A  DENIAL).  Ter. 

3.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted  before  names  of  countries, 
and,  in  the  poets,  before  names  of  nations  and  even  before  common  nouns : 

1  Originally  the  place  to  which  was  uniformly  designated  by  the  Accusative  without 
&  preposition.    Names  of  towns  have  retained  the  original  construction,  while  most  other 
names  of  places  have  assumed  a  preposition. 

2  See  also  the  Supine  in  um,  546, 


196  DATIVE. 

Aegyptum  profugit,  lie  fled  TO  EGYPT.  Cic.  Italiam  venit,  he  came  TO 
ITALY.  Verg.  Ibimus  Afros,  we  shall  go  TO  THE  AFRICANS.  Verg.  Lavlnia 
venit  litora,  he  came  to  the  Laviniau  SHORES.  Verg. 

4.  A  POETICAL  DATIVE  occurs  for  the  Accusative,  with  or  without  a 
preposition : 

It  clamor  caelo  (for  ad  caelum),  the  shout  ascends  TO  HEAVEN.  Verg.  Faci- 
lis  descensus  Averno,  easy  is  the  descent  TO  HADES.  Verg.  See  385,  4. 

III.  ACCUSATIVE  IN  EXCLAMATIONS. 
RULE  XI.— Accusative  in  Exclamations. 

381.  The  Accusative,  either  with  or  without  an  inter- 
jection, may  be  used  in  exclamations : 

Heu  me  miserum,  AH  ME  unhappy  !  Cic.  Me  miserum,  ME  miserable  ! l 
Cic.  O  fallacem  spent,  0  deceptive  HOPE!  Cic.  Me  caecum,  blind  that 
I  am !  Cic.  Pro  deorum  fideni,  IN  THE  NAME  of  the  gods !  Cic.  Hanc- 
cine  auddciamy  this  AUDACITY  ?  2  Cic.  But — 

NOTE  1.— An  adjective  or  Genitive  generally  accompanies  this  Accusative,  as  in  the 
examples. 

NOTE  2. — 0,  eheu,  and  heu  are  the  interjections  most  frequently  used  with  the  Ac- 
cusative, though  others  occur. 

NOTE  3.— Other  cases  also  occur  in  exclamations: 

1)  The  Vocative— when  an  address  as  well  as  an  exclamation  is  intended : 

Pro  sancte  Juppiter,  0  holy  JUPITER.  Cic.    Infellx  Dido,  unhapjyt/  DIDO.  Yerg. 

2)  The  Nominative — when  the  exclamation  approaches  the  form  of  a  statement : 

En  dextra,  LO  THE  EIGHT  HAND  (there  is,  or  that  is  the  right  hand) !  Verg.  Ecce 
tuae  lltterae,  LO  your  LETTER  (comes) !  Cic. 

3)  The  Dative — to  designate  the  person  after  ei,  vae,  and  sometimes  after  ecce,  en, 
7iem : 3 

Ei  mitii,  WOE  TO  ME.  Verg.  Vae  till,  WOE  TO  YOU.  Ter.  Ecce  titii,  LO  TO  YOU 
(lo  here  is  to  you  =  observe).  Cic.  En  tibl,  THIS  FOR  YOU  (lo  I  do  this  for  you).  Liv. 

SECTION   V. 

DATIVE. 

382.  The  Dative  is  the  case  of  the  Indirect  Object,  and 
designates  the  PERSON  TO  or  FOR  WHOM/  or  the  THIKG  TO 
or  FOB  WHICH,  anything  is  or  is  done.6 

1  See  Milton, « Paradise  Lost,'  IV.,  78. 

2  The  exclamation  may  of  course  be  interrogative  in  character. 

3  This  is  an  Ethical  Dative  ;  see  389. 

4  The  Indirect  Object  is  generally  a  person,  or  something  personified.    Unlike  the 
Direct  Object,  it  is  never  contained  in  the  action  or  produced  by  it,  but  is  in  most  in- 
stances the  interested  recipient  of  it. 

6  Whether  this  was  the  original  meaning  of  the  Dative  is  not  known.    Delbruck 


DATIVE.  197 

383.  The  Dative  is  used — 

I.  With  a  large  class  of  Verbs  and  Adjectives ; 
II.  With  a  few  special  Nonns  and  Adverbs. 

RULE  XII.— Dative  with  Verbs. 

384.  The  INDIRECT  OBJECT  of  an  action  is  put  in  the 
Dative.    It  is  used — 

I.  With  INTKASTSITIYE  and  PASSIVE  Verbs  : 

Till  servio,  /  am  devoted  TO  YOU.  Plaut.  Serviunt  populo,  they  are  de- 
voted TO  THE  PEOPLE/  Cic.  Imperio  parebant,  they  were  obedient  TO  (obeyed) 
AUTHORITY.  Caes.  Temporl  cedit,  he  yields  to  the  time.  Cic.  Labor!  stu- 
dent, they  devote  themselves  to  labor.  Caes.  Mundus  deo  paret,  the  world 
obeys  God.1  Cic.  Caesari  supplicabo,  I  will  supplicate  Caesar.1  Cic.  Nobis 
vita  data  est,  life  has  been  granted  to  us.  Cic.  Numitori  deditur,  he  is 
delivered  to  Numitor,  Liv. 

II.  With  TRANSITIVE  Verbs,  in  connection  with  the 
DIRECT  OBJECT  : 

Agrosplebi  dedit,  he  gave  lands  TO  THE  COMMON  PEOPLE.  Cic.  Tibl  gra- 
tias  ago,  /  give  thanks  TO  YOU.  Cic.  Natura  hominem  conciliat  homing 
Nature  reconciles  man  TO  MAN.  Cic.  Pons  iter  hostibus  dedit,  the  bridge 
gave  a  passage  to  the  enemy.  Liv.  Leges  clvitatibus  suls  scripserunt,  they 
prepared  laws  for  their  states.  Cic. 

1.  The  INDIRECT  OBJECT  may  be — 

1)  The  DATIVE  OP  INFLUENCE,2  designating  the  person  TO  whom  some- 
thing is  or  is  done  : 

Servhmt^?0jm&?,  tliey  are  devoted  TO  THE  PEOPLE.  Cic.  Agros  pUbl  dedit, 
he  gave  lands  TO  THE  COMMON  PEOPLE.  Cic. 

2)  The  DATIVE  OF  INTEREST,2  designating  the  person  FOR  whom  something 
is  or  is  done : 

Sibi  Megarenses  vlcit,  he  conquered  the  Megarians  FOR  HIMSELF.   Just. 

3)  The  DATIVE  OF  PURPOSE  or  END,2  designating  the  object  or  end  FOR 
which  something  is  or  is  done : 

Ileceptui  cecinit,  7ie  gave  the  signal  FOR  A  RETREAT.   Liv. 

thinks  that  this  case  originally  designated  the  place  or  object  toicard  'which  the  action 
tended.    See  Kuhn's  *  Zeitschrift,'  vol.  xviii.,  p.  81. 

1  Is  subject  to  God  ;  will  make  supplication  to  Caesar. 

2  Observe  that  the  Dative  of  Influence  is  very  closely  connected  with  the  verb,  and 
is,  in  fact,  essential  to  the  completeness  of  the  sentence ;  while  the  Dative  of  Interest  and 
the  Dative  of  Purpose  are  merely  added  to  sentences  which  would  be  complete  without 
them.    Thus  Megarenses  vlcit  is  complete  in  itself. 


198  DATIVE. 

2.  DOUBLE  CONSTRUCTION. — A  few  verbs  admit — (1)  the  Dative  of  the 
person  and  the  Accusative  of  the  thing,  or  (2)  the  Accusative  of  the  per- 
son  and  the  Ablative  of  the  thing :  alicui  rem  dondre,  l  to  present  a  thing 
to  any  one,'  or  aliquem  re  dondre,  '  to  present  any  one  with  a  thing ' : J 

Praedam  militibus  donat,  he  gives  the  booty  TO  THE  SOLDIERS.  Caes.  Athe- 
nievisesfrumentd  donavit,  he  presented  the  Athenians  WITH  GRAIN.  Nep. 

NOTE. — This  construction  may  also  be  used  of  objects  which  are  in  a  measure  per- 
sonified, or  which  involve  persons : 

Murum  urbl  circumdedit,  lie,  "built  a  wall  around,  THE  CITY.  Nep.  Deus  animurn 
circumdedit  corpore,  God  has  encompassed  the  soul  WITH  A  BODY.  Cic. 

3.  To  and  for  are  not  always  signs  of  the  Dative.     Thus — 

1)  To,  denoting  mere  motion  or  direction,  is  generally  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  with  or  without  a  preposition  (380) : 

VenI  ad  urbem,  I  came  TO  THE  CITY.  Cic.  Delum  venimus,  we  came  TO 
DELOS.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— But  the  Dative  occurs  in  the  poets;  see  38O,  4,  and  385,  4. 

NOTE  2. — Mitto,  '  to  send,'  and  scrlbo,  '  to  write,'  take  the  Dative,  or  the  Accusative 
with  ad ,  to  denote  the  person  to  whom : 

Scribit  Labieno,  he  writes  TO  LABIENUS.  Caes.  Scribes  ad  me,  you  will  write  TO 
ME.  Cic. 

2)  For,  in  defence  of,  in  behalf  of,  is  expressed  by  the  Ablative  with 
pro  ;  for  the  sake  of,  for  the  purpose  of,  sometimes  by  the  Accusative 
with  in : 

Propatria  morl,  to  die  FOR  ONE'S  COUNTRY.  Hor.  Dlmicare  pro  libertate, 
to  fight  FOR  LIBERTY.  Cic.  Satis  in  usum,  enough  FOR  USE.  Liv. 

4.  The  Dative  sometimes  depends,  not  upon  the  verb  alone,  but  upon 
the  Predicate  as  a  whole  : 

Tegimenta  galeis*  mllites  facere  jubet,  he  orders  the  soldiers  to  make  cov- 
erings FOR  THEIR  HELMETS.  Caes.  I^b&rls  dlvites  esse  volumus,  we  wish 
to  be  rich  FOR  THE  SAKE  OF  OUR  CHILDREN.  Cic.  Quis  huic  rll  testis  est, 
who  testifies  TO  THIS  (lit. ,  is  a  witness  FOR  this  THING).  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  Dative  is  used  with  verbs  modified  by  satis,  bene,  and  male,  whether 
written  as  compounds  or  not : 

Ells  satis  facere  (also  written  satisfacere),  to  satisfy  THEM.3  Caes.  Cui  bene  dixit 
unquam,  FOB  WHOM  has  he  ever  spoken  a  good  word  ?  Cic.  Optimo  viro  maledlcere, 
to  revile  a  most  excellent  MAN.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — A  Dative  is  sometimes  thus  added  to  the  predicate  when  the  English  idiom 
would  lead  us  to  expect  a  Genitive  depending  upon  a  noun : 

In  conspectum  venerat  hoetibus, 4  he  had  come  in  sight  OF  THE  ENEMY  (lit.,  TO  THE 

1  This  double  construction  occurs  chiefly  with  aspergo,  circumdo,  circumfundo, 
ddnd,  6xuG,  imperUo,  induO,  Inspergo,  intercludo. 

2  Galels  is  best  explained  as  depending  upon  tegimenta  facere,  rather  than  upon 
facere  alone ;  llberls,  as  depending  upon  dlvites  esse  volumus,  and  rei  upon  testi*  est. 

3  Literally,  to  do  enough  FOB  THEM. 

*  ffostibus  does  not  depend  at  all  upon  conspectum,  but  upon  the  entire  predicate, 
in  conspectum  venerat. 


DATIVE.  199 

ENEMY).  Cic.  Caesarl  ad  pedes  proicere,  to  cast  at  the  feet  OF  CAESAE  (lit.,  TO  CAESAR, 
at  the  feet).  Caes.  Mini  horror  membra  quatit,  a  shudder  shakes  my  limbs.  Yerg. 
Urbi  fundamenta  jacere,  to  lay  the  foundations  0/(for)  the  city.  Liv. 

NOTE  3. — The  Dative  is  sometimes  very  loosely  connected  with  the  predicate,  merely 
designating  the  person  with  reference  to  whom  the  statement  is  true : 

Tu  illl  pater  es,  you  are  a  father  TO  HEM.  Tac.  Tridul  iter  expedltls  erat,  it  was 
a  journey  of  three  days  FOE  LIGHT- ARMED  SOLDIERS.  Liv.  Est  urbe  egressis  tumu- 
lus, there  is  a  mound  as  you  go  out  of  the  city.1  Yerg. 

5.  WITH  IMPERSONAL  PASSIVE. — Verbs  which  admit  only  an  Indirect 
Object  in  the  Active  are  Impersonal  in  the  Passive,  but  they  may  retain 
the  Dative : 

Hostibus  resistunt,  they  resist  THE  ENEMY.  Caes.  His  sententils  resisti- 
tur,  resistance  is  offered  TO  these  OPINIONS.  Caes.  Ne  miM  noceant,  that  they 
may  not  injure  ME.  Cic.  Mihi  nihil  noceri  potest,  no  injury  can  be  done  TO 
ME  (lit.,  injury  can  be  done  TO  ME  not  at  all).  Cic. 

385.  WITH  SPECIAL  VERBS. — The  Dative  of  the  In- 
direct Object  is  used  with  many  Yerbs  which  require  special 
mention.  Thus — 

I.  With  verbs  signifying  to  lenefit  or  injure,  please  or  displease, 
command  or  obey,  serve  or  resist,  and  the  like  : 

Sibl  prosunt,  they  benefit  THEMSELVES.  Cic.  Nocere  alteri,  to  injure 
ANOTHER.  Cic.  Zenom  placuit,  it  pleased  ZENO.  Cic.  Displicet  Tullo,  it 
displeases  TULLUS.  Liv.  Cupiditatibus  imperare,  to  command  desires.  Cic. 
Deo  pSrere,  to  obey  God.  Cic.  Reg!  servire,  to  serve  the  king.  Cic.  Hosti- 
bus resistere,  to  resist  the  enemy.  Caes. 

II.  With  verbs  signifying  to  indulge,  spare,  pardon,   threaten, 
"believe,  persuade,  and  the  like  : 

Sibl  indulgere,  to  indulge  ONE'S  SELF.  Cic.  Vitae  parcere,  to  spare  LIFE. 
Nep.  Mihi  ignoscere,  to  pardon  ME.  Cic.  Minitans  patriae,  threatening 
his  country.  Liv.  Irasci  amicis,  to  be  angry  with  friends.  Cic.  Mihi  ere de, 
believe  me.  Cic.  Iis  persuadere,  to  persuade  them.  Caes. 

NOTE  1.— Some  verbs  of  this  class  take  the  Accusative :  delecto,  juvo^  laedo,  offendd, 
etc.: 

Marium  juvit,  he  helped  Marius.  Nep.  Non  me  lama  delectat,  fame  does  not 
delight  me.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— For/zcto  and  confldo  with  the  Ablative,  see  425,  1, 1),  note. 

NOTE  3.— The  force  of  the  Dative  is  often  found  only  by  attending  to  the  strict  mean- 

1  Other  examples  are :  A  Pylis  eunti  loco  alto  siti  sunt,  they  are  situated  in  an  ele- 
vated place  as  you  come  (lit.,  to  one  coming)  from  Pylae.  Liv.  Descendentibus 
inter  duos  lucos,  as  you  descend  (lit.,  to  those  descending)  between  the  two  groves. 
Liv.  Exscendentibus  ad  templum  maceria  erat,  there  was  an  enclosure  as  you  as- 
cended to  the  temple.  Liv.  In  universum  aestimanti  plus  penes  peditem  roboris  est, 
to  make  a  general  estimate  (lit.,  to  one  making^  etc.),  there  is  more  strength  in  the 
infantry.  Tac. 


200  DATIVE. 

ing  of  the  verb :  nubo,  'to  marry'  (strictly,  to  veil  one's  self,  as  the  bride  for  the  bride- 
groom); medeor,  'to  cure'  (to  administer  a  remedy  to);  satisfaciO,  'to  satisfy1  (to  do 
enough  for),  etc. 

1.  Some  verbs  admit  either  the  Accusative  or  the  Dative,  but  with  a 
difference  of  meaning : 

Cavere  aliquem,  to  ward  off  some  one  ;  cavere  alicui,  to  care  FOR  some  one. 

Consulere  aliquem,  to  consult,  etc.  ;  alicui,  to  consult  FOB,  etc. 

Metuere,  timere  aliquem,  to  fear  ;  alicui,  to  fear  FOB. 

Prospicere,  providere  aliquid,  to  foresee  ;  alicui,  to  provide  Ton. 

Temperare,  rnoderarl  aliquid,  to  govern,  direct;  alicui  (of  things),  to  re- 
strain, put  a  check  UPON  ;  temperare  alicui  (of  persons),  to  spare : l 

Hunc  tu  caveto,  be  on  your  guard  against  THIS  ONE  (lit.,  ward  HIM  off). 
Hor.  El  cavere  volo,  I  wish  to  care  FOB  HIM  (i.  e.,  to  protect  him).  Cic.  Per- 
jidiam  timemus,  we  fear  PEBFIDY.  Cic.  Sibi  timuerant,  they  had  feared  FOB 
THEMSELVES.  Caes. 

NOTE.—  Dare  lltterds  ad  aliquem  means  to  address  a  letter  TO  SOME  ONE  ;  but  dare 
litterus  alicui  generally  means  to  deliver  a  letter  TO  ONE  AS  A  CARRIER  or  MESSENGER: 

LItterae  mihl  ad  CatUlnam  datae  sunt,  a  letter  addressed  TO  CATILINE  was  deliv- 
ered TO  ME.  Cic. 

2.  A  DATIVE  rendered  from  occurs  with  a  few  verbs  of  diffwing,  dis- 
senting, repelling,  taking  away,  etc. : 

Differre  cuivls,  to  differ  FROM  ANY  ONE.  Ncp.  Sibl  dissentlre,  to  dissent 
FROM  HIMSELF.  Cic.  Soinnuni  mild  adimere,  to  take  sleep  FROM  ME.  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  Poetical  Dative,  see  4,  below;  and  for  the  Ablative  with  verbs  of 
Separation  or  Difference,  see  413. 

3.  A   DATIVE   rendered  with  occurs  with  misceo,  admisceo,  etc.,  and 
sometimes  with  facio : 

Severitatem  miscere  comitdtl,  to  unite  severity  WITH  AFFABILITY.  Liv.  Quid 
huic  hominl  facias,  what  are  you  to  do  WITH  (TO)  this  MAN  ?  Cic.  See  4  below. 

4.  DATIVE  IN  POETRY. — In  the  poets  and  in  late  prose- writers,  the  Dative 
is  used  much  more  freely  than  in  classical  prose.     Thus  it  occurs  with 
more  or  less  frequency  with  the  following  classes  of  verbs : 

1)  With  verbs  denoting  Motion  or  Direction — for  the  Accusative  with  ad 
or  in : 

Multos  dernittirnus  Oreo  (for  ad  or  in  Orcum\  we  send  many  down  TO  ORCUS. 
Verg.  Caelo  (for  ad  caelum)  palmas  tetendit,  he  extended  his  hands  TOWARD  HEAVEN. 
Verg.  It  clamor  caelo,  the  shout  goes  to  heaven.  Verg.  See  also  392, 1. 

2)  With  verbs  denoting  Separation  or  Difference 2— instead  of  the  Ablative 
with  ah  or  de,  or  the  Accusative  with  inter : 

Solstitium  pecori  (for  a  pecore)  defendite,  keep  off  the  heat  FROM  THE  FLOCK.  Verg. 
Scurrae  dlstabit  amicus,  a  friend  will  differ  FROM  A  JESTER.  Hor.  Serta  capitl  dG- 
lapsa,  garlands  fallen  from  his  head.  Verg. 

1  Many  other  verbs  take  different  constructions  with  different  meanings ;  see  eld o, 
convenio,  cupio,  deficit),  doleO,  maneO,  parcO,  peto,  solvo,  and  void  in  the  Dictionary. 

2  Thus  with  arceo,  alsum,  differ®,  dissentio,  dissideo,  dlsto,  etc. ;  see  Dictionary. 


DATIVE.  201 

3)  With  verbs  denoting  Union,  Comparison,  Contention,  and  the  like1 — 
instead  of  the  Ablative  with  cum,  or  the  Accusative  with  inter  : 

Miscet 2  viris,  he  mingles  WITH  THE  MEN.  Yerg1.  Concurrere  Jiostl  (for  cum  hoste),  to 
meet  THE  ENEMY.  Ov.  Bolus  tibi  certat,  he  alone  contends  with  you.  Yerg.  Placitone 
pugnabis  amorl,  will  you  contend  with  acceptable  love  ?  Yerg. 

4)  In  still  other  instances,  especially  in  expressions  of  Place : 

Haeret  laterl  (for  in  latere)  arund6,  the  arrow  sticks  IN  HER  SIDE.  Yerg.  Ardet 
apex  capiti,  the  helmet  gleams  UPON  HIS  HEAD.  Yerg. 

386.  DATIYE  WITH  COMPOUNDS. — The  Dative  is  used 
with  many  Yerbs  compounded  with — 

ad,          ante,          con,  de,  in,  inter, 

ob,          post,.         prae,          pro,          sub,          super: 

Adsum  amicis,  I  am  present  WITH  MY  FRIENDS.  Cic.  Omnibus  antestare, 
to  surpass  ALL.  Cic.  Terris  cohaeret,  it  cleaves  TO  THE  EARTH.  Sen.  Hoc 
Caesari  defuit,  this  failed  (was  wanting  TO)  CAESAR.  Caes.  Voluptati  in- 
haerere,  to  be  connected  with  pleasure.  Cic.  Interfuit  pugnae,  he  partici- 
pated in  the  battle.  Nep.  ConsiliTs  obstare,  to  oppose  plans.  Nep.  Llber- 
tati  opes  postferre,  to  sacrifice  wealth  to  liberty.  Liv.  Populo  praesunt, 
they  rule  the  people.  Cic.  Tibf^atOsunt,  they  are  profitable  to  you.  Cic. 
Succumbere  doloribus,  to  yield  to  sorrows.  Cic.  Superfuit  patri,  he  sur- 
vived Jiis  father.  Liv. 

1.  TRANSITIVE  VERBS  thus  compounded  admit  both  the  Accusative  and 
the  Dative : 

S&  opposuit  hostibus,  7ie  opposed  HIMSELF  TO  THE  ENEMY.  Cic.  Capiti  subduxerat 
ensem,  she  had  removed  my  sword  from  my  head.  Yerg.  See  also  Llbertdtl  opes 
postferre,  above. 

2.  COMPOUNDS  OF  OTHER  PREPOSITIONS,  especially  of  ab,  ex,  and  circum, 
sometimes  admit  the  Dative  ;  while  several  of  the  compounds  specified  under 
the  rule  admit  the  Ablative  with  or  without  a  preposition  : 3 

Sibl  Hbertatem  abjudicat,  he  deprives  HIMSELF  (sentences  himself  to  the  loss)  of  lib- 
erty, Cic.  Hihi  tiraorem  eripe,  free  MB  from  fear  (lit.,  snatch  away  fear  FOR  ME). 
Cic.  Pugna  assuescere,  to  oe  accustomed  to  (trained  in)  battle.  Liv.  Dicta  cum  factis 
componere,  to  compare  icords  with  deeds.  Sail. 

3.  MOTION  OR  DIRECTION. — Compounds  expressing  mere  motion  or  direc- 
tion generally  take  the  Accusative  with  or  without  a  preposition : 4 

1  Thus,  with  cdpuld,  jungo,  misceo,  admisceo,  permisced,  necto,  eocio,  etc. ;  certo, 
contendo^  luctor,  pugno,  etc. 

2  Misced,  as  a  transitive  verb,  occurs  with  the  Accusative  and  Dative  even  in  classical 
prose;  see  385,  3;  also  371,  III.,  note  2. 

3  See  assuesco,  assuefacio,  acquiesco,  coed,  cohaereO,  colli'ido,  commvnico,  com- 
pond,  concordo,  confero,  confllgd,  congrud,  conjungo,  consented,  consto,  InsistO,  in- 
sided,  Insum,  and  interfiled,  in  the  Dictionary.    See  also  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  40G-426 

*  See  accedo,  accido^  addd,  adfero,  adhaerescd,  adhibeo,  adjungo,  adnitor,  ad- 
Mrlbo,  adsum,  illudo,  incido,  incumbo,  incurro,  InferO,  ofero,  oppono,  in  the  Dictionary. 
10 


202  DATIVE. 

Adlre  drds,  to  approach  THE  ALTARS.  Cic.  Ad  consults  adire,  to  go  TO  THE  CON- 
SULS. Cic.  In  bellum  Insistit,  he  devotes  himself  to  the  war.  Caes.  Ad  omne  pericu- 
lum  opponitur,  he  is  exposed  to  every  peril.  Cic. 

4.  Several  compounds  admit  either  the  Accusative  or  the  Dative  without 
any  special  difference  of  meaning :  * 

Munltionibus  adjacent,  they  are  near  THE  FORTIFICATIONS.  Tac.  Mare  illud  ad- 
jacent, they  are  near  that  SKA.  Nep.  Quibus  timor  incesserat,  whom  fear  had  seized. 
Sail.  Timor  patres  incessit,  fear  seized  the  fathers.  Liv. 

5.  Many  compounds  which  usually  take  the  Accusative  or  the  Ablative 
with  a  preposition  in  classical  prose,  admit  a  Dative  in  poetry : 

Quid  contendat  hirundd  cycnls  (for  cum  cycnis),  why  should  the  swallow  contend 
WITH  SWANS?  Lucr.  Contendis  Homerd,  you  contend  WITH  HOMER.  Prop.  Animls 
illabl  nostrls  (for  in  animos  noslros),  to  sink  into  our  minds.  Verg. 

NOTE.— Instead  of  the  compounds  of  ad,  ante,  etc.,  the  poets  sometimes  use  in  the 
same  sense  the  simple  verbs  a  with  the  Dative : 

Qui  haeserat  (=  adhaeserat)  Evandro,  who  had  joined  himself  IQ  EVANDER.  Yerg. 
Ponis  (=  apponis)  mihl  porcum,  you  offer  ME  (place  BEFORE  ME)  swine's  flesh.  Mar- 
tial. 

387.  The  DATIVE  OF  THE  POSSESSOR  is  used  with  the 
verb  sum : 

Mihi  est  noverca,  I  have  (there  is  TO  ME)  a  stepmother.3  Verg.  fond 
nomen  Arethusa  est,  THE  FOUNTAIN  has  (there  is  TO  THE  FOUNTAIN)  the  name 
Arethusa.  Cic.  But — 

NOTE  1.— The  DATTVE  OF  THE  NAME  as  well  as  of  the  possessor  is  common  in  expres- 
sions of  naming :  nomen  est,  nomen  datur,  etc. : 

Sclpionl  Africdno  cognomen  fuit,  SCIPIO  had  the  surname  AFEICANTTS.  Sail.  Here 
Africdno,  instead  of  being  in  apposition  with  cognomen,  is  put  by  attraction  in  appo- 
sition with  Sclpionl. 

NOTE  2.— The  GENITIVE  OF  THE  NAME  dependent  upon  nomen  occurs : 

Nomen  Mercurl  est  mihl,  I  have  the  name  OF  MEECUBT.  Plaut. 

NOTE  3.— By  a  GEEEK  IDIOM,  nolens,  cupiens,  or  invitus  sometimes  accompanies  the 
Dative  of  the  possessor : 

Quibus  bellum  volentibus  erat,  who  liked  the  war  (lit.,  to  whom  WISHING  the  war 
was).  Tac. 

388.  The  DATIVE  OF  THE  APPARENT  AGENT  is  used 
with  the  Gerundive,  and  with  the  Passive  Periphrastic 
Conjugation  : 

1  Such  are  adjaceo,  adulor,  antecedo,  anteeo,  conltor,  despero  (also  with  de),  iUii- 
do,  incedo,  Insulto,  invddo,  praecurrO,  praesto,  praestolor. 

2  Thus  fero  for  adfero,  prdfero;  haereo  for  adhaereo;  pono  for  appono,  depono, 
impdno,  etc. 

3  The  Dative  with  est  usually  expresses  simple  possession  or  ownership,  like  the 
English  have.    ffaoeO  Is  sometimes  used  in  the  same  sense,  but  it  more  commonly  ex- 
presses some  of  the  shades  of  meaning  denoted  by  hold,  keep,  regard,  and  the  like : 
arcem  haoere,  'to  hold  the  citadel';  aliquem  in  oosidione  habere,  4to  hold  or  keep 
one  \n  siege1 ;  pro  hoste  habere,  *  to  regard  as  an  enemy.* 


203 

Proelia  conjugibus  loquenda,  battles  FOR  WOMEN  to  talk  about.1  Hor. 
Suum  cuique  incommQdum  f erendum  est,  EVERY  ONE  has  his  own  trouble  to 
bear,  or  must  bear  his  own  trouble.  Cic. 

NOTE.— Instead  of  the  Dative  of  the  Apparent  Agent,  the  Ablative  with  a  or  db  is 
sometimes  used : 

Quibus  est  a  vobls  2  consulendum,  for  whom  measures  must  be  taken  BY  YOU.  Cic. 

1.  The  DATIVE  OF  THE  APPARENT  AGENT  is  sometimes  used  with  the  com- 
pound tenses  of  passive  verbs : 

Mihl  consilium  captum  jam  dm  est,  I  have  apian  long  since  formed.1  Cic. 
NOTE.— HABEO  with  the  Perfect  Participle  has  the  same  force  as  EST  MIH!  with  the 
Participle : 

Bellum  habuit  indictum,  he  had  a  war  (already)  declared.  Cic. 

2.  The  REAL  AGENT,  with  Passive  verbs,  is  in  classical  prose  denoted  by 
the  Ablative  with  a  or  ab;3  see  415, 1. 

3.  The  DATIVE  is  used  with  the  tenses  for  incomplete  action,  to  designate 
the  person  who  is  at  once  Agent  and  Indirect  Object,  the  person  BY  whom  and 
FOR  (TO)  whom  the  action  is  performed : 

Honesta  bonls  virls  quaeruntur,  honorable  things  are  sought  BY  good  MEN 
(i.  e.,  for  themselves).  Cic. 

4.  In  the  POETS,  the  Dative  is  often  used  for  the  Ablative  with  d  or  ab,  to 
designate  simply  the  agent  of  the  action : 

Non  intellegor  ulll,  lam  not  understood  BY  ANY  ONE.  Ovid.  Eegnata  arva 
Saturnd,  lands  ruled  BY  SATURN.  Verg. 

389.  The  ETHICAL  DATIVE,  denoting  the  person  to 
whom  the  thought  is  of  special  interest,  is  often  introduced 
into  the  Latin  sentence : 4 

At  tibi  venit  ad  me",  but  LO,  he  comes  to  me.  Cic.  Ad  ilia  mihl  intendat 
animum,  let  him,  I  PRAY,  direct  his  attention  to  those  things.  Liv,  Quo  mihl 
abls,  whitlier  are  you  going,  PRAY  ?  Yerg.  Quid  mihl  Celsus  agit,  what  is 
MY  Celsus  doing  ?  Hor. 

1  The  Dative  with  the  Gerundive,  whether  alone  or  in  the  Periphrastic  Conjuga- 
tion, designates  the  person  who  has  the  work  to  do  ;  while  with  the  compound  tenses 
of  passive  verbs  it  designates  the  person  who  has  the  work  already  done. 

a  Here  d  vobls  is  necessary,  to  distinguish  the  Agent  from  the  Indirect  Object,  qui- 
bus ;  but  the  Ablative  with  d  or  ab  is  sometimes  used  when  this  necessity  does  not 
exist. 

3  The  Dative  with  the  Gerundive  is  best  explained  as  the  Dative  of  Possessor  or 
of  Indirect  Object.    Thus,  suum  cuique  incommodum  est  means  '  every  one  has  his 
trouble '  (cuique,  Dative  of  Possessor) ;  and  suum  cuique  incommodum  f  erendum  est, 
'every  one  has  his  trouble  to  bear.1    So  too,  mihl  consilium  est,  'I  have  a  plan ';  mihl 
consilium  captum  est, '  I  have  a  plan  (already)  formed.' 

4  Compare  the  following  from  Shakespeare:  'He  plucked  me  ope  his  doublet  and 
offered  them  his  throat  to  cut.'    Julius  Caesar,  Act  I.,  Scene  II.    *  It  ascends  me  into 
the  brain.'    Henry  IV.,  Part  II.,  Act  IV.,  Scene  III.    'He  presently  steps  me  a  little 
higher.1    Henry  IV.,  Part  I.,  Act  IV.,  Scene  III. 


204  DATIVE. 

NOTE  l.-*-The  ETHICAL  DATIVE  is  always  a  personal  pronoun. 

NOTE  2.— The  ETHICAL  DATIVE  occurs  with  VOLU  and  with  INTERJECTIONS  : 

Quid  vobls  vultis,  icliat  do  you  wish,  intend,  mean  f  Liv.    Avaritia  quid  sibl  vult, 

what  does  avarice  mean  ?  or  what  object  can  it  have?  Cic.     Ei  mihi,  G&ME!  Verg. 

Vae  tibi,  woe  TO  YOU.  Ter.    See  381,  note  3,  3). 

RULE  XIH.— Two  Datives— To  which  and  For  which* 

390.  Two  Datives — the  OBJECT  TO  WHICH  and  the  OB- 
JECT or  END  FOR  WHICH — occur  with  a  few  verbs : 

I.  With  INTRANSITIVE  and  PASSIVE  verbs  : 

Maid  est  hominibus  avaritia,  avarice  is  AN  EVIL  TO  MEN  (lit.,  is  TO  MEN 
FOR  AN  EVIL).  Cic.  Est  mihl  curae,  it  is  A  CARE  TO  ME.  Cic.  Domus 
dedecorl  domino  fit,  the  house  becomes  A  DISGRACE  TO  ITS  OWNER.  Cic. 
Venit  Atticis  auxili5,  he  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians.  Nep. 
Hoc  ill!  tribuebatur  Ignaviae,  this  was  imputed  to  him  as  cowardice  (for 
cowardice).  Cic.  Els  subsidio  missus  est,  he  was  sent  to  them  as  aid.  Nep. 

II.  With  TRANSITIVE  verbs  in  connection  with  the  AC- 
CUSATIVE : 

Qumque  cohortes  castrls  praesidio  rellquit,  he  left  five  cohorts  FOR  THE 

DEFENCE  OF  THE  CAMP  (lit.,  TO    THE    CAMP   FOR  A  DEFENCE).     CaCS.      Pericles 

agros  suos  dono  rei  publicae  dedit,  Pericles  gave  his  lands  to  the  republic 
as  a  present  (lit.,  for  a  present).   Just. 

NOTE  1.— The  verbs  which  take  TWO  DATIVES  are— 

1)  Intransitive  verbs  signifying  to  be,  become,  go,  and  the  like :  sum,  fid,  etc. 

2)  Transitive  verbs  signifying  to  give,  send,  leave,  impute,  regard,  choose,  and  the 
like:  do,  dfrnd,  duco,  habeO,  mitto,  relinquO,  tribuo,  verto,  etc.     These  take  in  the 
Active  two  Datives  with  an  Accusative;  but  in  the  Passive  two  Datives  only,  as  the 
direct  object  of  the  Active  becomes  the  subject  of  the  Passive ;  see  464, 

NOTE  2.— One  of  the  Datives  is  often  omitted,  or  its  place  supplied  by  a  predicate  noun : 

Ea  sunt  usul,  these  things  are  OF  USE  (FOB  USE).  Caes.  Tu  illl  pater  es,  you  are 
A  FATHER  TO  HIM.  Tac.  See  362,  2,  note  3. 

NOTE  3. — "With  audiens  two  Datives  sometimes  occur,  dicto  dependent  upon  au- 
diim,  and  a  personal  Dative  dependent  upon  dicto  audiens,  and  sometimes  dicto  oboe- 
dicns  is  used  like  dicto  audiens: 

Dicto  sum  audiens,  I  am  listening  to  the  word.  Plaut.  Nobls  dicto  audiens  est, 
lie  is  obedient  to  us.  Cic.  Magistro  dicto  oboediGns,  obedient  to  his  master.  Plaut. 

RULE  XIV.— Dative  with  Adjectives. 

391.  With  adjectives  the  OBJECT  TO  WHICH  the  quality 
is  directed  is  put  in  the  Dative : 

Patriae  solum  omnibus  carum  est,  the  soil  of  their  country  is  dear  TO  ALL. 
Cic.  Id  aptum  est  tempori,  this  is  adapted  TO  THE  TIME.  Cic.  Omni  aetail 
mors  est  communis,  death  is  common  TO  every  AGE.  Cic.  Canis  similis  lupo 


DATIVE.  205 

est,  a  dog  is  similar  to  a  wolf.   Cic.    Naturae  accommodation,  adapted  to 
nature.   Cic.     Graeciae  utile,  useful  to  Greece.  Nep. 

I.  ADJECTIVES  which  take  the  DATIVE  are  chiefly  those  signifying — 
Agreeable,  easy,  friendly,  like,  near,  necessary,  suitable,  subject,  useful,  to- 
gether with  others  of  a  similar  or  opposite  meaning,1  and  verbals  in  Ulis. 

II.  OTHER  CONSTRUCTIONS  sometimes  occur  where  the  learner  would  ex- 
pect the  Dative : 

1.  The  Accusative  ivitli  a  Preposition:  (1)  in,  erg-a,  adversus,  with  ad- 
jectives signifying  friendly,  hostile,  etc.,  and  (2)  ad,  to  denote  the  object  or 
end  for  which,  with  adjectives  signifying  useful,  suitable,  inclined,  etc. : 

Perindulgens  in  patrem,  very  kind  TO  HIS  FATHER.  Cic.  Multas  ad  res 
perutilis,  very  useful  FOR  many  THINGS.  Cic.  Pronus  ad  luctum,  inclined  to 
mourning.  Cic. 

2.  The  Accusative  without  a  Preposition  with  propior,  proximus : 
Propior  montem,  nearer  THE  MOUNTAIN.   Sail.    Proximus  mare,  nearest  to 

the  sea.   Caes.    See  433  and  437. 

3.  The  Ablative  with  or  without  a  Preposition  : 

Alienum  a  vita  mea,  foreign  TO  my  LIFE.  Ter.  Homine  alienissimum, 
most  foreign  TO  or  FROM  MAN.  Cic.  El  cum  Roscio  communis,  common  to 
him  and  Eoscius  (with  Koscius).  Cic. 

4.  The  Genitive :  (1)  with  adjectives  used  substantively ;  (2)  with  adjec- 
tives meaning  like*  unlike?  near,  belonging  to,  and  a  few  others: 3 

Amlcissimus  hominum,  the  best  friend  OF  THE  MEN  (i.  e.,  the  most  friendly 
to  them).  Cic.  Alexandrl  similis,  like  ALEXANDER  (i.  e.,in  character).  Cic. 
Dispar  sui,  unlike  ITSELF.  Cic.  Cujus  pares,  like  whom.  Cic.  Popull  Ko- 
mani  est  propria  llbertas,  liberty  is  characteristic  of  the  Roman  people.  Cic. 

NOTE  I.— Idem  occurs  with  the  Dative,  especially  in  the  poets : 

Idem  facit  occidentl,  he  does  the  same  AS  TO  KILL,  or  AS  HE  WHO  KILLS.  Hor. 

NOTE  2. — For  the  Genitive  and  Dative  with  an  adjective,  see  399, 1.,  note  1. 

RULE  XV.— Dative  with  Nouns  and  Adverbs. 

392.  The  Dative  is  used  with  a  few  special  nouns  and 
adverbs : 

I.  With  a  few  nouns  from  verbs  which  take  the  Dative  : 

Justitia  est  obtemperatiS 4  legibus,  justice  is  obedience  TO  LAWS.    Cic. 

1  Such  are  accommoddtus,  aequdlis,  alilnus,  amicus,  inimicus,  aptus,  c<1rusy 
facilis,  difficilis,  fidelis,  Infidelis,  finitimus,  gratus,  ingratuz,  idoneus,  jucundus, 
injiicundus,  molestus,  necessurius,  notus,  Ignotus,  noxius,  par,  dispar,  pemiciosus, 
proplnquus,  proprius,  saliitdris,  similis,  dissimilis,  dlverxius,  vleinus,  etc. 

2  The  Genitive  is  used  especially  of  likeness  and  unlikeness  IN  CHARACTER. 

3  As  similis,  dissimilis,  assimilis,  consimilis,  par,  dispar;  adfinis,  flnitimus^ 
propinquus;  proprius,  sacer,  cwnmunis;  alienus,  contrarius,  insuetus,  etc. 

4  From  obtemperO,  which  takes  the  Dative. 


£06  GENITIVE. 

Sibi  responsio,  a  reply  TO  HIMSELF.  Cic.  Opulento  hominl  servitus  dura 
est,  serving  (servitude  to)  a  rich  man  is  hard.  Plaut.  Facilis  descensus ! 
AvernO,  easy  is  the  descent  to  Avernus.  Verg. 

II.  With  a  few  adverbs  from  adjectives  which  take  the 
Dative : 

Congruenter2  naturae  vivere,  to  live  in  accordance  WITH  NATURE.  Cic. 
Sibl  convenienter  dlcere,  to  speak  consistently  WITH  HIMSELF.  Cic.  Prox}- 
me  hostium  castris,  next  to  the  camp  of  the  enemy.  Caes. 

NOTE  1.— -In  rare  instances  the  Dative  occurs  with  a  few  nouns  and  adverbs  not  in- 
cluded in  the  rule : 

Tribumcia  potestas,  munlmentum  libertdtl,  tribunician  power,  a  defence  FOB  LIB- 
ERTY. Liv.  Huio  una  =  unS  cum  hoc,  with  this  one.  Verg. 

NOTE  2.— For  the  Dative  of  Gerundives  with  official  names,  see  544,  note  8. 

Nora  8.— For  the  Dative  with  interjections,  see  381,  note  8;  389,  note  2. 

SECTION    VI. 

GENITIVE. 

393.  The  Genitive  in  its  ordinary  use  corresponds  to  the 
English  possessive,  or  the  objective  with  of,  and  expresses 
various  adjective  relations.3 

NOTE.— But  the  Genitive,  especially  when  objective  (396,  III.),  is  sometimes  best 
rendered  to,  for,  from,  in,  on  account  of,  etc. : 

Beneficil  gratia,  gratitude  FOR  A  FAVOB.  Cic.  Ldborum  fuga,  escape  FBOM  LABORS. 
Cic.  Ereptae  virginis  Ira,  anger  on  account  of  the  rescue  of  the  maiden.  Verg. 

394.  The  Genitive  is  used  chiefly  to  qualify  or  limit  nouns 
and  adjectives/  though  it  also  occurs  with  verbs  and  adverbs. 

RULE  XVI.— Genitive  with  Nouns. 

395.  Any  noun,   not   an    appositive,   qualifying  the 
meaning  of  another  noun,  is  put  in  the  Genitive : 

Catonis  orationes,  CATO'S  orations.  Cic.  Castra  hostium,  the  camp  OF 
THE  ENEMY.  Liv.  Mors  Hamilcaris^  the  death  OF  HAMILCAR.  Liv.  Deum 
metus,  the  fear  of  the  gods.  Liv.  Vir  consilil  magm,  a  man  of  great  pru- 
dence. Caes.  Pars  populi,  a  part  of  the  people.  Cic. 

1  From  descendO,  which  admits  the  Dative  in  poetry;  see  385,  4, 1). 

2  From  congruent,  which  takes  the  Dative. 

3  The  Genitive  has  nearly  the  force  of  an  adjective,  and  means  simply  <^or  belonging 
to.    ThM8,regi8,  equivalent  to  regius,  means  of  or  belonging  to  a  king.    On  the  origin 
and  me  of  the  Genitive,  see  Hubschmann,  p.  106;  Merguet,  p.  69;  Holzweissig,  pp.  26 
and  73;  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  447-493;  Koby,  II.,  pp.  116-187. 

*  Doubtless  originally  it  limited  only  nouns  and  adjectives. 


GENITIVE.  £07 

NOTE  1.— For  the  Appetitive,  see  363. 

NOTE  2. — An  ADJECTIVE  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Genitive : 

Bellica  gloria  =  belli  gloria,  the  glory  of  war.  Cic.  Conjunx  Hectorea  =  conjunx 
Hectoris,  the  wife  of  Hector.  Yerg.  Pugna  Marathonia,  the  battle  of  Marathon.  Cic. 
Diana  Ephesia,  Diana  ofEphe&us.  Cic.  See  393,  foot-note. 

NOTE  8.— For  the  Predicate  Genitive,  see  401. 

NOTE  4.— For  special  uses  of  the  Dative,  see  384,  4,  note  2. 

396.  The  qualifying  Genitive  may  be — 

I.  A  POSSESSIVE  GENITIVE,!  designating  the  author  and  the  possessor : 

Xenophontis  librl,  the  looks  of  Xenophon.  Cic.  Fanum  NeptunI,  the 
temple  of  Neptune.  Nep, 

II.  A  SUBJECTIVE  GENITIVE,  designating  the  subject  or  agent  of  the  ac- 
tion, feeling,  etc. : 

Serpentis  morsus,  the  lite  of  the  serpent.  Cic.  Favor  Numidarum,  the  fear 
of  the  Numidians.  Liv. 

NOTE.— The  POSSESSIVE  PEONOUN  is  regularly  used  for  the  Subjective  Genitive  of 
Personal  pronouns : 

Mea  domus,  my  house.  Cic.    Fama  tua,  your  fame.  Cic. 

III.  An  OBJECTIVE  GENITIVE,  designating  the  object  toward  which  the 
action  or  feeling  is  directed : 

Amor  gloriae,  the  love  of  glory.  Cic.  Memoria  malorum,  the  recollection 
of  sufferings.  Cic.  Deum  metus,  the  fear  of  the  gods.  Liv. 

NOTE  1.— For  the  OBJECTIVE  GENITIVE,  the  Accusative  with  in,  ergra,  or  adver- 
STIS  is  sometimes  used : 

Odium  in  hominum  genus,  hatred  of  or  toward  the  race  of  men.  Cic.  Erga  vos 
amor,  love  toward  you.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— The  POSSESSIVE  occurs,  though  rarely,  for  the  Objective  Genitive  of  Per- 
sonal pronouns : 

Tua  flducia,  reliance  on  you.  Cic. 

IV.  A  PARTITIVE  GENITIVE,  designating  the  whole  of  which  a  part  is 
taken : 

Quis  vestrum,  which  of  you?  Cic.  Vltae  pars,  a  part  of  life.  Cic. 
Omnium  sapientissimus,  the  wisest  of  all  men.  Cic. 

V.  A  DESCRIPTIVE  GENITIVE,  also  called  a  GENITIVE  OF  CHARACTERISTIC, 
designating  character  or  quality,  including  value,  price,  size,  weight,  age,  etc. 

Vir  maxim!  consilil,  a  man  of  very  great  prudence.  Nep.  Mitis  ingeni! 
juvenis,  a  youth  of  mild  disposition.  Liv.  Vestis  magni  pretil,  a  garment  of 
great  value.  Cic.  Exsilium  decem  annorum,  an  exile  of  ten  years.  Nep. 
Corona  parvl  ponderis,  a  crown  of  small  weight.  Liv.  See  404. 

1  It  will  be  found  convenient  thus  to  characterize  the  different  uses  of  the  Genitive 
by  the  relation  actually  existing  between  the  words  united  by  it,  though  that  special  re- 
lation is  not  expressed  by  the  case  itself,  but  merely  suggested  by  the  meaning  of  the 
words  thus  united. 


208  GENITIVE. 

NOTE  1.—  The  Descriptive  Genitive  must  be  accompanied  by  an  adjective  or  some 
other  modifier,  unless  it  be  a  compound  containing  a  modifier;  as  htijusmodi  =  Jnljus 
modi;  trldm,  from  tres  dies;  bidul,  from  duo  (bis)  dies. 

NOTE  2.—  For  id  genu$  =  ejua  generis,  omne  genus  =  omnia  generis,  see  378,  2. 

NOTE  8.—  For  the  Descriptive  Ablative,  see  419,  II.,  with  note. 

VI.  An  APPOSITIONAL  GENITIVE,  having  the  general  force  of  an  Apposi- 


Virtus  continentiae,  the  virtue  of  self-control.  Cic.  Oppidum  Antiochlae, 
the  city  of  Antiocli.  Cic.  Tellus  Ausoniae,  the  land  of  Ausonia.  Verg. 

397.  The  PARTITIVE  GENITIVE  designates  the  whole  of  which 
a  part  is  taken.  It  is  used  — 

1.  With  pars,  nemd,  nihil  ;  with  nouns  of  quantity,  number,  weight, 
etc.,  as  modius,  legw,  talentum  ;  and  with  any  nouns  used  partitively  : 

Bqudrum  pars,  a  part  OF  THE  HORSES.  Liv.  Nihil  novl  (441,  2),  nothing 
NEW  (OF  NEW).  Cic.  Nihil  reliqul  (441,  2),  nothing  left  (lit.,  OF  THE  rest). 
Sail.  Medimnum  trlticl,  a  bushel  of  wheat.  Cic.  Pecuniae  talentum,  a  talent 
of  money.  Nep.  Quorum  Gaius,  of  whom  Gains.  Cic. 

2.  With  Numerals  used  substantively  :  ! 

Quorum  quattuor,  four  of  whom.  Liv.  Equitum  centum,  a  hundred  of 
the  cavalry.  Curt.  Sapientum  octavus,  the  eighth  of  the  icise  men.  Hor. 
Unus  pontium,  one  of  the  bridges.  Caes. 

NOTE.  —  In  good  prose  the  Genitive  is  not  used  when  the  two  words  refer  to  the  same 
number  of  objects,  even  though  of  be  used  in  English  : 

Qui  (not  quorum)  duo  supersunt,  of  whom  two  survive.  Cic.  Omnes  homines,  all 
men.  Cic.  But  see  p.  209,  note  4,  with  foot-note. 

3.  With  Pronouns  and  Adjectives  used  substantively,  especially  with 
comparatives,  superlatives,  and  neuters  :  2 

Quis  vestrum,  which  of  you  ?  Cic.  Num  quidnam  novl,  is  there  anything 
new  (OF  NEW)  ?  Cic.  Consulum  alter,  one  of  the  consuls.  Liv.  Prior  horum, 
the  former  of  these.  Nep.  Gallorum  fortissimi,  the  bravest  of  the  Gauls.  Caes. 
Id  temporis,  that  (of)  time.  Cic.  Multum  operae,  much  (of)  service.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.—  Pronouns  and  adjectives,  except  neuters,  when  used  with  the  Partitive 
Genitive,  take  the  gender  of  the  Genitive,  unless  they  agree  directly  with  some  other 
word  ;  see  consulum  alter,  above. 

NOTE  2.—  Uterque,  '  each,'  *  both,1  is  generally  used  as  an  adjective  ;  but  when  it  is 
combined  in  the  singular  number  with  another  pronoun,  it  usually  takes  that  pronoun  in 
the  Genitive: 

Uterque  exercitus,  each  army.  Caes.  Quae  utraque,  both  of  which.  Sail.  Utrique 
nostrum3  gratum,  acceptable  to  each  of  us.  Cic. 

1  Numerals  used  adjectively  agree  with  their  nouns:  mille  Jiomines,  'a  thousand 
men1;  mille  hominnm,  'a  thousand  of  men1;  multl  homines,  'many  men1;  multl 
Jiominum,  'many  of  the  men.1 

2  As  hoc,  id,  illud,  quid;  multum,  plus,  plurimum,  minus,  minimum,  tantumt 
quantum,  etc. 

8  A  Partitive  Genitive,  because  a  pronoun. 


GENITIVE.  209 

NOTE  3.— For  the  Partitive  Genitive,  the  Accusative  with  inter  or  ante,  or  the 
Ablative  with  ex,  de,  or  in,  is  sometimes  used : 

Inter  reges  opulentissiinus,  the  most  wealthy  of  (among)  kings.  Sen.  Unus  ex  viris, 
one  of  the  heroes.  Cic.  Unus1  dy  legatis,  one  of  the  lieutenants.  Cic. 

NOTE  4.— Poets  and  late  prose  writers  make  a  very  free  use  of  the  Partitive  Genitive 
after  adjectives : 

Sancta  dearum,  holy  goddess.  Enn.  Sancte  deorum,  0  holy  god.  Verg.  Festos 
dierum,  festal  days.  Hor.  Leves  cohortium,  the  light-armed  cohorts.  Tac.  Inclutus 
philosophorum,  the  rcnoicned  philosopher.  Just.  Eeliquuin  diel,  the  rest  of  the  day. 
Liv.  Multum  diel,  much  of  the  day.  Liv.  Ksliquum  noctis,  the  rest  of  the  night.  Tac. 
Strata  viarum  =  strittao  viae,  paved  streets.  Yerg.  Vana  rerum  =  vanae  res,  vain 
things.  Hor.  Hominuin  concti,  all  of  the  men?  Ovid.  Cuncta  terrarum,  all  lands. 
Hor.  See  also  438,  5. 

NOTE  5. — The  Neuter  of  pronouns  and  adjectives  with  the  Partitive  Genitive  is  some- 
times used  of  persons : 

Quid  hoc  est  hominis,  WHAT  KIND  OF  A  MAN  is  this  ?  Plaut.  Quidquid  erat  pa- 
trum  reos  dlceres,  you  would  have  said  that  ALL  THE  SENATORS  (lit.,  WHATEVER  there 
was  OP  FATHERS)  were  accused.  Liv.  Quid  hue  tantum  hominum  incedunt,  why  are 

BO  MANY  MEN  (8O  MUCH  OF  MEN)  COminff  hither  ?    Plaut. 

4.  The  Partitive  Genitive  also  occurs  with  a  few  adverbs  used  sub- 
stantively : 3 

ArmdTwma,(tfeitiin,abV'ndanceofarms.  Liv.  Lucis  nimis,  toomuch  (of)  light. 
Ovid.  Sapientiae  parum,  little  (of )  wisdom.  Sail.  Partim  copiarum,  a  portion 
of  the  forces.  Liv.  Quod  ejus  facere  potest,  as  far  as  (what  of  it)  Tie  is  able  to 
do.  Cic.  Nusquam  gentium,  nowhere  in  the  world.  Cic.  Hue  arrogantiae, 
to  this  degree  of  insolence.  Tac.  Maxime  omnium,  most  of  all.  Cic. 

398.  GENITIVE  IN  SPECIAL  CONSTRUCTIONS. — Note  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  The  GOVERNING  WORD  is  often  omitted.    Thus — 

Aedes,  templum,  discipulus,  homd,  juvenis,  puer,  etc. ;  causa,  gratia,  and 
indeed  any  word  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied : 

Ad  Jovis  (sc.  aedem),  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter.  Liv.  Hannibal  annO- 
rum  novem  (sc.  puer),  Hannibal,  a  boy  nine  years  of  age.  Liv.  Aberant 
bidul  (sc.  viam  or  spatium),  they  were  two  days'  journey  distant.  Cic.  Con- 
ferre  vltam  Trebonl  cum  Dolabellae  (sc.  vita),  to  compare  the  life  of  Trebonius 
with  that  of  Dolalella.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  governing  word  is  generally  omitted  when  it  has  been  expressed  before 
another  Genitive,  as  in  the  last  example;  and  then  the  second  Genitive  is  sometimes 
attracted  into  the  case  of  the  governing  word : 

1  "Unus  is  generally  followed  by  the  Ablative  with  ea  or  de,  but  sometimes  by  the 
Genitive. 

2  Observe  that  in  this  case  the  partitive  idea  has  entirely  disappeared,  and  that  the 
construction  is  partitive  in  form,  but  not  in  sense. 

3  As  with  adverbs  of  QUANTITY— abunde,  adfatim,nimis,  parum,  partim,  quoad, 
satis,  etc. ;  of  PLACE— hlc,  Me,  nusquam,  ubi.  etc. ;  of  EXTENT,  DEGREE,  etc.— ed,  hue, 
quo ;  and  with  superlatives.    As  adverbs  are  substantives  or  adjectives  in  origin,  it  is 
not  strange  that  they  are  thus  used  with  the  Genitive. 


210  GENITIVE. 

Natura  hominis  beluls  (for  leluurum  naturae)  antecedit,  the  nature  of  man  sur- 
passes (that  of)  the  brutes.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.—In  many  cases  where  we  supply  son,  daughter,  husband,  wife,  the  ellipsis 
is  only  apparent,  the  Genitive  depending  directly  on  the  proper  noun  expressed : 

Hasdrubal  Gisconis,  Gisco^s  Hasdrubal,  or  Hasdrubal  the  son  of  Gisco.  Liv.  Hec- 
toris  Andromache,  Hector's  Andromache,  or  Andromache  the  wife  of  Hector.  Verg. 

2.  Two  GENITITES  are  sometimes  used  with  the  same  noun.     One  is 
generally  subjective,  the  other  either  objective  or  descriptive : 

Memm!  odium  potentiae,  Memmius's  Jiatred  of  power.  Sail.  Helvetiorum 
injuriae  popull  Komani,  the  wrongs  done  by  the  Helvetii  to  the  Roman  people. 
Caes.  Superiorum  dierum  Sablnl  cunctati6,  the  delay  of  Sabinus  during  (lit., 
of)  the  preceding  days.  Caes. 

3.  A  GENITIVE  sometimes  accompanies  a  POSSESSIVE,  especially  the 
Genitive  of  ipse,  solus,  unus,  or  omnis : 

Tua  ipslus  amlcitia,1  your  own  friendship.  Cic.  Meum  sSllus  peccatum, 
my  fault  alone.  Cic.  Nornen  meum  absentis,  my  name  in  my  absence.  Cic. 

4.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  instar,  l  likeness/  *  image/  in  the  sense  of 
as  large  as,  of  the  size  of,  equal  to : 

Instar  mentis  equus,  a  horse  of  the  size  of  a  mountain.  Verg. 

6.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  prldie,  postrldie,  erg5,  and  tenus : 2 

Prldie  ejus  die"  I,  on  the  day  before  that  day.  Caes.  Postrldie  ejus  diel,  on 
the  day  after  that  day.  Caes.  Virtutis  ergo,  on  account  of  virtue.  Cic.  Lum- 
borum  tenus,  as  far  as  the  loins.  Cic.  For  tenus  with  the  Ablative,  see  434. 

RULE  XVII.— Genitive  with  Adjectives. 

399.  Many  adjectives  take  a  Genitive  to  complete 
their  meaning : 

Avidus  laudis,  desirous  or  PRAISE.  Cic.  Otil  cupidus,  desirous  OP  LEIS- 
URE. Liv.  Conscius  conjurationis,  cognizant  of  the  conspiracy.  Sail. 
Amans  sul  virtus,  virtue  fond  of  itself.  Cic.  Efficiens  voluptatis,  produc- 
tive of  pleasure.  Cic.  Gloriae  memor,  mindful  of  glory.  Liv. 

NOTE. — This  Genitive  corresponds  to  the  Objective  Genitive  with  nouns : 
Amor  gloriae,  the  love  of  glory.  Cic.     Appetens  gloriae,  desirous  of  (eager  for) 
glory.  Cic. 

I.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  adjectives  denoting— 
1.  DESIRE  or  AVERSION  : 8 

1  Ipslus  may  be  explained  as  agreeing  with  tul  (of  you),  Involved  in  tua,  and  sdliw 
and  absentis  as  agreeing  with  mel  (of  me),  involved  in  meum. 

2  These  words  are  strictly  nouns,  and,  as  such,  govern  the  Genitive.    Prldie  and 
postrldie  are  Locatives;  ergo  is  an  Ablative,  and  tenus,  an  Accusative;  see  304;  307, 
notel. 

3  Such  are — (1)  avidus,  cupidus,  studiosus;  fastldiosus,  etc.;  (2)  gnarus,  igndrus, 
wnsultut,  cdnscius,  inscius,  nescius,  certus,  incertus;  providus,  prudens,  impru- 


GENITIVE.  211 

Contentions  cupidus,  desirous  of  contention.  Cic.  Sapientiae  studio sus,  stu- 
dious of  (student  of)  wisdom.  Cic.  Terrae  fastldiosus,  weary  of  the  land.  Hor. 

2.  KNOWLEDGE,  SKILL,  RECOLLECTION,  with  their  contraries : l 

Eel  gnarus,  acquainted  with  the  thing.  Cic.  Prudens  rel  mllitaris,  skilled 
in  military  science.  Nep.  Peritus  belli,  skilled  in  war.  Nep.  Insuetus 
laboris,  unaccustomed  to  labor.  Caes.  Gloriae  memor,  mindful  of  glory. 
Liv.  ImmQmor'bQUQfi.cu,  forgetful  of  kindness.  Cic. 

3.  PARTICIPATION,  GUILT,  FULNESS,  MASTERY,  with  their  contraries : * 
Adflnis  culpae,  sharing  the  fault.   Cic.    Eationis  particeps,  endowed  with 

(sharing)  reason.  Cic.  Eationis  expers,  destitute  of  reason.  Cic.  Manifestus 
rerum  capitalium,  convicted  of  capital  crimes.  Sail.  Vita  metus  plena,  a  life 
full  of  fear.  Cic.  Mel  potens  sum,  /  am  master  of  myself.  Liv.  Virtutia 
compos,  capable  of  virtue.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  Genitive  and  Dative  sometimes  occur  with  the  same  adjective : 

Mens  sib!  conscia  recti,  a  mind  conscious  to  itself  of  rectitude.  Verg.  Sibi  conscil 
culpae,  conscious  to  themselves  of  fault.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— For  the  Genitive  with  adjectives  used  substantively,  and  with  adjectives 
meaning  like,  unlike,  near,  belonging  to,  etc.,  see  391,  II.,  4. 

NOTE  3.— For  the  Genitive  with  dlgnus  and  indlgnus,  see  421,  note  3. 

II.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  VERBALS  in  ax,  and  with  PRESENT  PAR. 
TICIPLES  used  adjectively : 

Virtutum  ferax,  productive  of  virtues.  Liv.  Tenax  propositl,  tenacious 
(steadfast)  of  purpose.  Hor.  Amans  patriae,  fond  of  his  country.*  Cic. 
Fugiens  laboris,  shunning  labor.  Caes. 

III.  In  the  poets  and  in  late  prose  writers,  especially  in  Tacitus,  the  Gen- 
itive  is  used — 

1.  With  adjectives  of  almost  every  variety  of  signification,  simply  to 
define  their  application : 3 

Aevl  maturus,  mature  in  age.  Verg.  Ingens  vlrium,  mighty  in  strength. 
Sail.  Serl  studiorum,  late  in  studies.  Hor.  Integer  aevl,  unimpaired  in  age 
(i.  e. ,  in  the  bloom  of  youth).  Verg.  Aeger  anim!,4  afflicted  in  spirit.  Liv.  Anx- 
ius  anim!,4  anxious  in  mind.  Sail.  Fldens  animl,  confident  in  spirit.  Verg. 

2.  With  a  few  adjectives,  to  denote  cause: 

Laetus  laborum,  pleased  with  the  labors.  Verg.  Notus  animl  paterni,  dis- 
tinguished for  paternal  affection.  Hor. 

dens;  perttus,  imperltus,  rudis,  tnsuetus;  memor,  immemor,  etc.;  (8)  adflnis,  cen- 
sors, exsors,  expers,  particeps,  manifestos,  noxius;  plenus,  fertiUs,  refertus,  egenus^ 
inops,  vacuus ;  potens,  impotens,  compos,  etc. 

1  See  foot-note  3,  page  210. 

2  Amans  patriae, '  fond  of  his  country,'  represents  the  affection  as  permanent  and 
constant;  whereas  the  participial  construction,  amdns  patriam,  'loving  his  country,1 
designates  a  particular  instance  or  act. 

3  Like  the  Ablative  of  Specification;  see  434.    For  votl  reus,  'bound  to  fulfil  a 
row,'  see  410,  III.,  note  2. 

4  Probably  a  Locative  in  origin,  as  animls  is  used  in  similar  instances  in  the  plural, 


212  GENITIVE. 

400.  Adjectives  which  usually  take  the  Genitive,  sometimes 
admit  other  constructions : 

1.  The  DATIVE  : 

Manus  subitis  avidae,  hands  ready  for  sudden  events.  Tac.  Insuetus  mori- 
bus  Romania,  unaccustomed  to  Roman  manners.  Liv.  Facinorl  mens  conscia, 
a  mind  conscious  of  crime.  Cic.  See  391. 

2.  The  ACCUSATIVE  WITH  A  PREPOSITION  : 

Insuetus  ad  pugnara,  unaccustomed  to  battle.  Liv.  Fertilis  ad  omnia,  pro- 
ductive for  all  things.  Pljn.  Avidus  in  novas  res,  eager  for  new  things.  Liv. 

3.  The  ABLATIVE  WITH  or  WITHOUT  A  PREPOSITION  : 

Prudens  in  jure  civil!,  learned  in  civil  law.  Cic.  His  de  rebus  conscius, 
aware  of  these  things.  Cic.  Vacuus  de  defensoribus,  destitute  of  defenders. 
Caes.  Curls  vacuus,  free  from  cares.  Cic.  Eefertus  bonls,  replete  with  bless- 
ings. Cic.  See  414,  III. 

RULE  XVUL1.— Predicate  Genitive. 

401.  A  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  a 
different  person  or  thing  is  put  in  the  Genitive : 

Omnia  hostium  erant,  all  things  belonged  TO  THE  ENEMY.1  Liv.  Senatus 
Hannibalis  erat,  the  senate  was  HANNIBAL'S  (i.  e.,  in  his  interest).  Liv. 
Judicis  est  verum  seqm,  to  follow  the  truth  is  tJie  duty  OF  A  JUDGE.2  Cic. 
Parvi  pretii  est,  it  is  of  small  value.  Cic.  Tyrus  mare  suae  dicionis  3  fecit, 
Tyre  brougJit  the  sea  under  (lit.,  made  the  sea  OF)  her  sway.  Curt. 

NOTE  1.— For  a  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing, 
see  363;  373,1. 

NOTE  2. — A  PKEDICATE  GENITIVE  is  often  nearly  or  quite  equivalent  to  a  Predicate 
adjective  (36O,  note  1):  hominis  est  =  humdnum  est,  'it  is  the* mark  of  a  man,1  'is 
human';  stultl  e$t  =  stultum  est^  'it  is  foolish.*  The  Genitive  is  the  regular  construc- 
tion in  adjectives  of  one  ending :  sapientis  est  (for  sapiens  e#t\  'it  is  the  part  of  a  wise 
man,'  '  is  wise/ 

NOTE  3. — Possessive  pronouns  in  agreement  with  the  subject  supply  the  place  of  the 
Predicate  Genitive  4  of  personal  pronouns : 

Est  tuum  (not  tui)  vidtire,  it  is  your  duty  to  se$.  Cic. 

NOTE  4.— Aequl,  bom,  and  reliqul  occur  as  Predicate  Genitives  in  such  expressions 
as  aequl  facer  e,  aequl  bonlqu^  facer  e,  bonl  consulere,  'to  take  in  good  part,'  and 
rzliqul  facere,  '  to  leave '  : 

Aequl  bomque  facio,  /  take  it  in  good  part.  Ter.  Militefl  nihil  reliqul  victls  fecere, 
the  soldiers  left  nothing  to  ttte  vanquished.  Ball 

1  Literally,  were  OF  THE  ENEMY,  or  icere  THE  ENEMY'S. 

2  Literally,  is  OF  A  JTTDGE. 

3  Here  diei&nfo,  denoting  a  different  thing  from  mare,  of  which  it  is  predicated,  is 
put  in  the  Genitive. 

4  This  is  another  illustration  of  the  close  relationship  between  a  Predicate  Genitive 
»nd  a  Predicate  Adjective;  see  also  note  2. 


GENITIVE.  213 

402.  The  PBEDICATE  GENITIVE  is  generally  Possessive  or  De- 
scriptive, rarely  Partitive : 

Haec  hostium  erant,  these  tilings  were  OF  (belonged  to)  THE  ENEMY.  Liv. 
Est  imperdtoris  superare,  it  is  the  duty  OF  A  COMMANDER  to  conquer.  Caes. 
Summae  facultatis  est,  Tie  is  (a  man)  of  the  highest  ability.  Cic.  Opera 
magnl  fuit,  the  assistance  was  of  great  value.  Nep.  Fles  nobilium  fontium,1 
you  will  become  one  of  the  noble  fountains.  Hor. 

403.  The  PREDICATE  GENITIVE  occurs  most  frequently  with 
sum  and  facio,  but  sometimes  also  with  verbs  of  seeming,  regard- 
ing, etc.  : 

Oram  Eomanae  dicionis  fecit,  he  brought  the  coast  under  (made  the  coast 
of)  Roman  rule.  Liv.  Hominis  videtur,  it  seems  to  be  the  mark  of  a  man. 
Cic.  See  also  examples  under  401. 

NOTE.— Transitive  verbs  of  this  class  admit  in  the  active  an  Accusative  with  the 
Genitive,  as  in  the  first  example.  ,  » 

404.  The  PREDICATE  GENITIVE  of  PRICE  or  VALUE  is  used  with 
sum  and  with  verbs  of  valuing : 

Magnl  sunt  tuae  lltterae,  your  letters  are  OF  GREAT  VALUE.  Cic.  Pluris 
esse,  to  be  OF  GREATER  VALUE.  Cic.  Parvl  pendere,  to  think  lightly  of.  Sail. 
Auctoritatem  tuam  magnl  aestimo,  I  prize  your  authority  highly.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— With  these  verbs  the  Genitive  of  price  or  value  is  generally  an  adjective? 
as  in  the  examples,  ~butpretil  is  sometimes  used : 

Parvl  pretii  est,  it  is  of  little  value,  dc. 

NOTE  2.—Nihill  and,  in  familiar  discourse,  a  few  other  Genitives3  occur: 

Nihill  facere,  to  take  no  account  of.  Cic.  Non  flocci  pendere,  not  to  care  a  straw 
(lock  of  wool)  for.  Plaut. 

405.  Tantlj  quantl,  pluris,  and  minoris  are  also  used  as  GENI- 
TIVES OF  PRICE  with  verbs  of  buying  and  selling :  * 

Emit  hortos  tantl,  he  purchased  the  gardens  AT  so  GREAT  A  PRICE.   Cic. 
Vendo  frumentum  pluris,  I  sell  grain  AT  A  HIGHER  PRICE.   Cic. 
NOTE.— For  the  Ablative  of  price,  see  422. 

RULE  XIX.— Genitive  with  Special  Verbs. 

406.  The  Genitive  is  used — 

I.  With  misereor  and  miseresco : 

Miserere  laborum,  pity  the  labors.  Verg.  Miserescite  rggis,  pity  the 
Icing.  Verg. 

1  Factiltdtis  and  magnl  are  Descriptive,  but  fontium  is  Partitive. 

2  The  following  adjectives  are  so  used :  inagnl,  parvl^  tantl,  quantl ;  pluris,  mi- 
idris ;  pluriml,  mdximl,  and  minimi. 

3  As  assis,  flocci,  naucl,  and.  pill. 

4  Observe  that  verbs  of  buying  and  selling  admit  the  Genitive  of  price  only  when 
one  of  these  adjectives  is  used.    In  other  cases  they  take  the  Ablative  qf  price. 


214  GENITIVE. 

II.  With  recorder,  memini,  reminiscor,  and  obllviscor : l 
Meminit  praeteritorum,  he  remembers  the  past.   Cic.     Oblitus  sum  mei, 

I  have  forgotten  myself.   Ter.     Flagitiorum  recordari,  to  recollect  base  deeds. 
Cic.     Reminisci  virtutis,  to  remember  virtue.    Caes. 

III.  With  refert  and  interest : 

Illorum  refert,  it  concerm  them.  Sail.  Interest  omnium,  it  is  the  inter- 
est of  all.  Cic. 

NOTE. — The  expression,  Venit  in  mentem,  'it  occurs  to  mind,1  is  sometimes  con-- 
gtrued  with  the  Genitive  and  sometimes  with  the  Nominative: 

Venit  mih!  Platonis  in  mentem,2  the  recollection  of  Plato  comes  to  my  mind,  or  1 
recollect  Plato.  Cic.  Non  venit  in  mentem  pugna,  does  not  the  battle  occur  to  your 
mindf  Liv. 

407.  Verbs  of  REMEMBERING  and  FORGETTING  often  take  the 
Accusative  instead  of  the  Genitive : 

Memineram  Paullum,  /  remembered  Paullus.  Cic.  Triumphos  recordari, 
to  recall  triumphs.  Cic.  Ea  reminiscere,  remember  those  things.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — The  Accusative  is  the  common  construction  (1)  with  recordor  and  (2) 
with  the  other  verbs,  if  it  is  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  or  designates  an  object  re- 
membered by  a  contemporary  or  an  eye-witness. 

NOTE  2.— The  Ablative  with  de  is  rare : 

Eecordure  de  ceteris,  bethink  yourself  of  the  others.  Cic. 

408.  The  CONSTRUCTION  with  refert  and  interest  is  as  follows : 
I.  The  PERSON  interested  is  denoted — 

1.  By  the  Genitive,  as  under  the  rule. 

2.  By  the  Ablative  Feminine  of  the  Possessive*   This  takes  the  place  of  the 
Genitive  of  personal  pronouns : 

Mea  refert,  it  concerns  me.   Ter.    Interest  mea,  it  interests  me.   Cic. 

3.  By  the  Dative,  or  Accusative  with  or  without  Ad;  hut  rarely,  and 
chiefly  with  refert,  which  moreover  often  omits  the  person : 

Quid  refert  vlventl,  what  does  it  concern  one  living  f  Hor.  Ad  me  refert, 
it  concei'ns  me.  Plaut. 

II.  The  SUBJECT  OP  IMPORTANCE,  or  that  which  involves  the  interest,  is 
expressed  by  an  Infinitive  or  Clause,  or  by  a  Neuter  Pronoun : 

1  The  Genitive  with  verbs  of  pitying,  remembering,  and  forgetting  probably  de- 
pends upon  the  substantive  idea  contained  in  the  verbs  themselves ;  see  Internal  Object, 
371,  I.,  2.    Thus,  memini  with  the  Accusative  means  I  remember  distinctly  and  fully, 
generally  used  of  an  eye-witness  or  of  a  contemporary;  but  with  a  Genitive,  it  means  to 
have  some  recollection  of.    With  refert  the  Genitive  depends  upon  re,  the  Ablative  of 
res,  contained  in  the  verb,  and  with  interest  it  may  be  a  Predicate  Genitive,  or  may  sim- 
ply follow  the  analogy  of  refert. 

2  With  venit  in  mentem,  the  Genitive  Platonis  supplies  the  place  of  subject.    It 
probably  limits  the  pronominal  subject  already  contained  in  venit,  as  in  every  Latin  verb, 
it  or  that  of  Plato,  the  recollection  of  Plato. 

3  See  foot-note  1,  above. 


GENITIVE.  215 

Interest  omnium  recte  facere,  to  do  right  is  the  interest  of  all.  Cic.  Vestra 
hoc  interest,  this  interests  you.  Cio. 

III.  The  DEGREE  OF  INTEREST  is  expressed  by  an  Adverb,  by  a  Neuter 
used  adverbially,  or  by  a  Genitive  of  Value  (404) : 

Vestra  maxime"  interest,  it  especially  interests  you.  Cic.  Quid  nostra  re- 
fert,  what  does  it  concern  us  f  Cic.  Magnl  interest  mea,  it  greatly  interests 
me.  Cic. 

IV.  The  OBJECT  or  END  for  which  it  is  important  is  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  with  ad,  rarely  by  the  Dative : 

Ad  honorem  nostrum  interest,  it  is  important  for  our  honor.  Cic. 

RULE  XX.— Accusative  and  Genitive* 

409.  The  ACCUSATIVE  of  the  PERSON  and  the  GENI- 
TIVE of  the  THING  are  used  with  a  few  transitive  verbs : 

I.  With  verbs  of  reminding)  admonishing : l 

Te  armcitiae  commonefacit,  he  reminds  you  OP  FRIENDSHIP.  Cic.  Milites 
necessitatis  monet,  he  reminds  the  soldiers  of  the  necessity.  Ter. 

II.  With  verbs  of  accusing,  convicting,  acquitting : l 
Viros  sceleris  arguis,  you  accuse  men  OP  CRIME.   Cic.     Levitatis  eum  con- 

vincere,  to  convict  him  of  levity.   Cic.    Absolvere  injuriae  eum,  to  acquit 
him  of  injustice.   Cic. 

III.  With  miser et,  paenitet,  pudet,  taedet,  and piget : 2 
Eorum  nos  miseret,  we  pity  THEM  (it  moves  our  pity  OF  THEM).   Cic. 

Consilii  me  paenitet,  /  repent  of  my  purpose.   Cic.     Me  stultitiae  meae 
pudet,  /  am  ashamed  of  my  folly.   Cic. 

NOTE  1. — The  Genitive  of  the  Thing  designates,  with  verbs  of  reminding,  etc.,  that 
to  which  the  attention  is  called;  with  verbs  of  accusing,  etc.,  the  crime,  charge;  and 
with  miseret,  paenitet,  etc.,  the  object  which  produces  the  feeling ;  see  examples. 

NOTE  2.— The  personal  verbs  included  under  this  rule  retain  the  Genitive  in  the 
Passive : 

Accusatus  est  proditionis,  he  was  accused  OF  TREASON.  Nep. 

1  The  Genitive  with  verbs  of  reminding  and  admonisJiing  may  be  explained  like 
that  with  verbs  of  pitying,  remembering,  and  forgetting ;  see  foot-note  1,  page  214. 
With  verbs  of  accusing,  etc.,  the  Genitive  may  also  be  explained  in  the  same  way,  or 
may  depend  upon  nomine,  crlmine,  or  jMicio,  understood.    Sometimes  one  of  these 
nouns  is  expressed;  see  41O,  II.,  1. 

2  The  Genitive  with  paenitet,  pudet,  etc.,  like  that  with  venit  in  mentem  (see  406, 
note,  with  foot-note),  depends  upon  the  impersonal  subject  contained  in  the  verb.    Thus, 
te  haec  pudent  means  these  things  shame  you,  and  me  stultitiae  meae  pudet,  literally 
rendered,  means  of  my  folly  (i.  e.,  the  thought  of  it,  or  something  about  it),  shames  me. 
The  Genitive  with  miseret  may  be  explained  either  in  the  same  way,  or  like  that  with 
misereor;  see  foot-note  1,  page  214. 


216  GENITIVE. 

NOTE  3.— In  judicial  language  a  few  verbs  not  otherwise  BO  used  are  treated  as 
verbs  of  accusing.  Thus  condlco  occurs  with  the  Genitive  in  Livy,  I.,  32. 

410.  SPECIAL  CONSTRUCTIONS. — The  following  deserve  notice: 
I.  Verbs  of  REMINDING  and  ADMONISHING  sometimes  take,  instead  of 
the  Genitive — 

1.  The  Accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  rarely  of  a  substan- 
tive, thus  admitting  two  accusatives : 

Illud  me  admones,  you  admonish  me  OF  THAT.   Cic. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  de—wioned  and  its  compounds  generally  so : 
Deproelio  vos  admonul,  I  have  reminded  you  OF  THE  BATTLE.  Cic. 

II.  Verbs  of  ACCUSING,  CONVICTING,  sometimes  take,  instead  of  the 
Genitive  of  the  crime,  etc. — 

1.  The  Genitive  with  nomine,  crimine,  judicid,  or  some  similar  word: 
Nomine  conjurationis  damnatl  sunt,  they  were  condemned  on  the  charge  of 

conspiracy.   Cic.    Innocentem  judicio  capitis  arcessere,  to  arraign  an  inno- 
cent man  on  a  capital  charge.   Cic. 

2.  The  Accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  rarely : 
Id  me  accusas,  you  accuse  me  of  that.  Plaut. 

3.  The  Ablative  alone  or  with  a  preposition,  generally  de : 

De  pectmils  repetundls  damnatus  est,  he  was  convicted  of  extortion.  Cic. 

III.  With  verbs  of  CONDEMNING,  the  Penalty  is  generally  expressed  by 
the  Ablative?  or  by  the  Accusative  with  a  preposition,  usually  ad: 

Tertia  parte  damnarl,  to  be  condemned  to  forfeit  a  third  of  one's  land.  Liv. 
Capite  damnare,  to  condemn  to  death.  Cic.  Morte  multare,  to  punish  with 
death.  Cic.  Ad  bestias  condemnare,  to  condemn  to  the  ivild  beasts.  Suet. 

NOTE  1.— In  the  poets  the  penalty  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Dative: 

Mortl  damnatus,  condemned  to  death.  Lucr. 

NOTE  2. — The  Genitive  occurs  in  such  special  expressions  as  capitis  condemndre, 
'to  condemn  to  death1;  xbtl  damnarl , l to  be  condemned  to  fulfil  a  vow1  =  ' to  obtain 
a  wish';  damnarl  longl  laboris^to  be  condemned  to  long  labor1;  xotl  reus^  —  votl 
damnatus, '  condemned  to  fulfil  a  vow' : 

Aliquem  capitis  condemnare,  to  condemn  one  to  death.  Cic.  Damnatus  longl  laboris, 
condemned  to  long  labor.  Hor. 

IV.  With  MISERET,  PAENITET,  PUDET,  TAEDET,  and  PIGET,  an  Infinitive 
or  Clause  is  sometimes  used,  rarely  a  neuter  pronoun  or  nihil  : 

Me  paenitet  vixisse,  /  repent  having  lived.  Cic.  Te  haec  pudent,  these 
things  shame  you.  Ter. 

NOTE  1.— Like  miser et  are  sometimes  used  miserescit,  commiserescit,  miseretur, 
. commiseretur.  Like  taedet  are  used pertaedet, pertaesum  est. 

NOTE  Z.—Pudet  sometimes  takes  the  Genitive  of  the  person  before  whom  one  is 
ashamed : 

Me  tui  pudet,  /  am  ashamed  in  your  presence.  Ter.  Pudet  hominum,  tt  is  a 
shame  in  the  sight  of  men.  Liv. 

1  Eegularly  so  when  the  penalty  is  a  definite  sum  of  money. 
8  Best  explained  as  a  substantive. 


ABLATIVE.  217 

NOTE  Z.—Pertaesus  admits  the  Accusative  of  the  object : 
Pertaesus  Ignaviam  suam,  disgusted  with  his  own  inaction.  Suet. 

V.  Many  other  verbs  sometimes  take  the  Genitive.1     Thus — 

1.  Some  verbs  of  plenty  and  want,  as  compleo,  impleo,1  cgeo,  indiged,  like 
adjectives  of  the  same  meaning  (399, 1.,  3) : 

Virtus  exercitationis  indiget,  virtue  requires  exercise.  Cic.  Auxilii  egere, 
to  need  aid.  Caes.  Multitudinem  religionis  implevit,2  lie  inspired  (filled)  the 
multitude  with  religion.  Liv.  Kerum  satagere,  to  be  occupied  ivith  (to  do 
enough  of)  business.  Ter. 

2.  Some  verbs  of  desire,  emotion,  or  feeling,  like  adjectives  of  the  same 
meaning  (399, 1.,  1) : 

Cupiunt  tul,  they  desire  you.  Plaut.  Tul  testimonil  veritus,  fearing  your 
testimony.  Cic.  Animl 3  pendeO,  /  am  uncertain  in  mind.  Cic.  Discrucior 
animl,  /  am  troubled  in  spirit.  Plaut.  Te  angis  animl,  you  make  yourself 
anxious  in  mind.  Plaut.  Desipere  mentis,  to  be  foolish  in  mind,  or  mistaken 
in  opinion.  Plaut. 

3.  A  few  verbs  denoting  mastery  or  participation,  like  adjectives  of  the 
same  meaning  (399, 1.,  $),potior,*  adipiscor,  regno  : 

Siciliae  potltus  est,  he  became  master  of  Sicily.  Nep.  Kerum  adeptus  est,  he 
obtained  the  power.  Tac.  Kegnavit  populorum,  he  was  Icing  of  the  peoples.  Hor. 

4.  In  the  poets,  a  few  verbs 5  take  the  Genitive,  instead  of  the  Ablative  of 
Separation  or  Cause  (413) : 

Abstinere  irarum,  to  abstain  from  anger.  Hor.  Laborum  decipitur,  he  is 
beguiled  of  his  labors.  Hor.  Desine  querelarum,  cease  from  complaints.  Hor. 
Desistere  pugnae,  to  desist  from  the  battle.  Verg.  Eum  culpae  llberare,  to 
free  him  from  blame  (i.  e.,  to  acquit  him).  Liv.  Mirari  laborum,  to  admire 
because  of  toils.  Verg.  Damnl  mfectl  promittere,  to  give  surety  in  mew  of 
expected  damage.  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  Genitive  of  Gerunds  and  Gemndives,  see  543, 1. ;  544. 

SECTION    VII. 

ABLATIVE. 

41 1.  The  LATIN  ABLATIVE  performs  the  duties  of  three 
cases  originally  distinct : 6 
I.  The  ABLATIVE  PROPEE,  denoting  the  relation  FEOM  : 

Expulsus  est  patria,  he  was  banished  FROM  HIS  COUNTRY.   Cic. 

1  Transitives  of  this  class  of  course  admit  the  Accusative  with  the  Genitive. 

2  See  421,  II. 

8  Animl  in  such  instances  is  probably  a  Locative  in  origin,  as  animls  is  used  in  the 
same  way  in  the  plural.  See  foot-note  on  animl,  399,  III.,  1. 

4  Potior  takes  the  Genitive  regularly  when  it  means  to  reduce  to  subjection. 

5  As  dbsUneO,  decipiO,  dlsinO,  desistu,  levd,  libero,  etc. ;  inlror,  etc. 

6  These  three  cases,  still  recognized  in  the  Sanskrit,  originally  had  distinct  forms; 
but  in  tho  Latin,  under  the  influence  of  phonetic  change  and  decay,  these  forms  have 


218  ABLAZIVR 

II.  The  INSTRUMENTAL,  denoting  the  relation  WITH,  BY  : 

Sol  omnia  luce  collustrat,  the  sun  illumines  all  things  WITH  ITS  LIGHT.   Cic. 

III.  The  LOCATIVE,  denoting  the  relation  IN,  AT  : 

Se  oppido  tenet,  he  keeps  himself  IN  THE  TOWN.   Cic. 

I.  ABLATIVE  PROPER. 
RULE  XXI.— Place  from  which. 

412.  The  PLACE  FKOM  WHICH  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative: 

I.  Generally  with  a  preposition — a,  ab,  de,  or  ex  : 

Ab  urbe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  out  FROM  THE  CITY.   Caes.     De  foro,  from 
the  foi^um.   Cic.     Ex  Africa,  from  (out  of )  Africa.   Liv. 

II.  In  NAMES  OF  TOWNS  without  a  preposition :  l 

Platonem  Athenls  arcessivit,  he  summoned  Plato  FROM  ATHENS.   Nep. 
Fugit  Corintho,  he  fled  from  Corinth.   Cic. 

1.  Many  names  of  islands,  and  the  Ablatives  domo  and  rure,  are  used 
like  names  of  towns : 

Domo  profugit,  he  fled  FROM  HOME.   Cic.    Dllo  proficiscitur,  he  proceeds 
FROM  DELOS.   Cic. 

2.  The  Ablative  of  places  not  towns  is  sometimes  used  without  a  prepo- 
sition, especially  in  poetry : 

Cadere  nulibus,  to  fall  FROM  THE  CLOUDS.  Verg.    Labi  equd,  to  fall  FROM  A 
HORSE.   Hor. 

3.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  used  with  names  of  towns,  especially 
for  emphasis  or  contrast : 

Ab  Ardea,  Eomam  venerunt,  they  came  FROM  ARDEA  to  Borne.  Liv. 
NOTE.— The  preposition  is  generally  used  when  the  vicinity,  rather  than  the  town 
itself,  is  meant : 

Discessit  a  Brundisio,  he  departed  from  Brundisium  (i.  e.,  from  the  port).  Caes. 

RULE  XXII.— Separation,  Source,  Cause. 

413.  Separation,  Source,  and  Cause  are  denoted  by  the 
Ablative  with  or  without  a  preposition : 

SEPARATION. — Caedem  a  vobls  depello,  I  ward  off  slaughter  FROM  YOU. 
Cic.     Hunc  a  tuls  aris  arcebis,  you  will  Jceep  this  one  FROM  YOUR  ALTARS. 

become  identical,  and  their  uses  have  been  blended  in  a  single  case  called  the  Ablative. 
On  the  general  subject  of  the  Ablative  and  its  use,  see  Merguet,  pp.  109-117;  Delbriick; 
Hiibschmann,  pp.  82-106;  Holzweissig,  pp.  28  and  75;  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  494-571;  Koby, 
II.,  pp.  68-115. 

1  This  was  the  original  construction  for  all  places  alike. 


ABLATIVE.  219 

Cic.  Expulsus  est  patria,  he  was  banished  from  his  country.  Cic.  Urbem 
commeatu  privavit,  he  deprived  the  city  of  supplies.  Nep.  Conatu  desti- 
terunt,  they  desisted  from  the  attempt.  Caes.  Vagina  eripe  ferrum,  draw 
your  sword  from  its  scabbard.  Verg. 

SOURCE. — Hoc  audivi  de  parente  mco,  I  heard  this  FROM  MY  FATHER.  Cic. 
Oriundi  ab  Sablnis,  descended  FROM  THE  SABINES.  Liv.  Statua  ex  aere 
f  acta,  a  statue  made  of  bronze.  Cic.  Abiete  puppis,  the  stern  made  of  fir. 
Verg.  Jove  natus,  son  of  Jupiter.  Cic. 

CAUSE. — Ars  utilitdte  laudatur,  an  art  is  praised  BECAUSE  OF  ITS  USEFUL- 
NESS. Cic.  Lacrimo  gaudio,  I  weep  FOR  (on  account  of)  JOY.  Ter.  Vestra 
hoc  causa  volebam,  /  desired  this  on  your  account.  Cic.  Rogatu  veneram,  / 
had  come  by  request.  Cic.  Ex  vulnere  aeger,  ill  in  consequence  of  his  wound. 
Cic.  Aeger  erat  vulneribus,  he  was  ill  in  consequence  of  his  wounds.  Nep. 

NOTE  1. —  Transitive  Verbs  admit  an  Accusative  with  the  Ablative ;  see  examples. 

NOTE  2.— The  prepositions  most  frequently  used  with  the  Ablative  of  Separation 
and  Source  are  a,  ab,  de,  e,  ex,  and  with  the  Ablative  of  Cause,  de,  e,  ex. 

NOTE  3. — With  the  Ablative  of  Separation  the  preposition  is  more  freely  used  when 
the  separation  is  local  and  literal  than  when  it  is  figurative :  de  ford,  '  from  the  forum  '; 
ex  Asia,  'out  of  Asia';  but  levdre  inetu,  'to  relieve  from  fear';  condtu  desistere,  'to 
desist  from  the  undertaking.' 

NOTE  4.— For  the  Genitive  instead  of  the  Ablative  of  Separation,  see  410,  V.,  4; 
and  for  the  Dative  similarly  used,  see  385,  2. 

414.  The  ABLATIVE  OF  SEPARATION  designates  that  from  which 
anything  is  separated,  or  of  which  it  is  deprived,  and  is  generally 
used  without  a  preposition  in  the  following  situations  : 

I.  With  verbs  meaning  to  relieve,  deprive,  need,  be  without: J 

Leva  me  hoc  onere,  relieve  me  OF  THIS  BURDEN.  Cic.  Vinclls  exsolvere,  to 
release  FROM  CHAINS.  Plaut.  Molestia  expedlre,  to  relieve  of  trouble.  Cic. 
Mllitem  praeda  fraudare,  to  defraud  the  soldiery  of  booty.  Liv.  Non  egeo 
mediclna,  I  do  not  need  a  remedy.  Cic.  Vacare  culpa,  to  be  free  from  fault. 
Cic.  See  also  examples  under  413. 

II.  With  moved  in  special  expressions : 2 

Signum  movere  loco,  to  move  the  standard  FROM  THE  PLACE.   Cic. 

III.  With  adjectives  meaning  free  from,  destitute  of:3 

Animus  liber  curd,  a  mind  free  FROM  CARE.   Cic.    Expers  metu,  free  FROM 
FEAR.   Cic.    Urbs  nuda  praesidio,  a  city  destitute  of  defence.   Cic. 
NOTE.— For  a  similar  use  of  the  Genitive,4  see  399, 1.,  3. 

IV.  With  opus  and  usus,  meaning  need: 

1  As  expedio,  exonero,  levo,  rel&vo,  libero,  relaxd,  solvO,  absolvo,  exsolvo ;  exuo, 
frauds,  niidO,  orbo,  ftpolid,  prlvo,  etc. 

2  As  in  movere  loco,  movere  senatu,  movere  tribu,  movere,  vestlgio. 

3  A  or  ab  is  generally  used  with  names  of  persons  and  sometimes  with  other  words. 

*  Egenus,  indigus,  sterilis,  and  some  others  are  freely  used  with  the  Genitive :  see 
399, 1.,  8. 


220  ABLATIVE. 

Auctoritdte  tua,  nobls  opus  est,  we  need  (there  is  to  us  a  need  of)  YOTJR 
AUTHORITY.  Cic.  Usus  est  tua  mini  opera,  I  need  your  AID.  Plaut. 

NOTE  1. — In  most  other  instances  a  preposition  accompanies  the  Ablative  of  Separa- 
tion, though  often  omitted  in  poetry  and  in  late  prose. 

NOTE  2. — Opus  est  and  iisus  est  admit  the  Dative  of  the  person  with  the  Ablative  of 
the  thing;  see  examples. 

NOTE  3.— With  opus  and  iisus,  the  Ablative  is  sometimes  a  perfect  participle,  or, 
with  opus,  a  noun  and  a  participle : 

Consulto  opus  est,  there  is  need  of  deliberation.  Sail.  Opus  fuit  Hirtio  convento, 
there  was  need  of  meeting  Hlrtius.  Cic. 

NOTE  4.— "With  opus  est<  rarely  with  iisus  est^  the  thing  needed  may  be  denoted— 

1)  By  the  Nominative,  rarely  by  the  Genitive  or  Accusative : 

Dux  nobls  opus  est,  ice  need  a  leader,  or  a  leader  is  necessary  (a  necessity)  for  us. 
Cic.  Temporis  opus  est,  there  is  need  of  time.  Liv.  Opus  est  cibum,  there  is  need  of 
food.  Plaut. 

2)  By  an  Infinitive,  a  Clause,  or  a  Supine : 

Opus  est  to  valere,  it  is  necessary  that  you  oe  well.  Cic.  Opus  est  ut  lavem,  it  is 
necessary  for  me  to  "bathe  (that  I  bathe).  Plaut.  Dictu  est  opus,  it  is  necessary  to  oe 
told.  Ter. 

415.  The  ABLATIVE  OF  SOURCE  more  commonly  takes  a  prepo- 
sition ;  see  examples  under  413.  It  includes  agency,  parentage, 
material,  etc. 

I.  The  agent  or  author  of  an  action  is  designated  by  the  Ablative  with 
a  or  ab : 

Occlsus  est  a  Thebanls,  he  was  slain  by  the  Thebans.  Nep.  Occidit  a  fort! 
Achille,  he  was  slain  (lit.,  fell}  by  brave  Achilles.  Ov. 

1.  The  Ablative  without  a  preposition  may  be  used  of  a  person,  regarded 
not  as  the  author  of  the  action,  but  as  the  means  by  which  it  is  effected  : 

Cornua  Numidls  l  firmat,  he  strengthens  the  wings  WITH  NUMIDIANS.   Liv. 

NOTE  1.— The  Accusative  wither  may  be  used  of  the  person  through  whose  agency 
the  action  is  effected : 

Ab  Oppianico  per  Patricias1  factum  est,  it  icas  accomplished  l)y  Oppianicus 

THROUGH  THE  AGENCY  OF  THE  FABRICII.    Cic. 

NOTE  2.— For  the  Dative  of  Agent,  see  388. 

2.  "When  anything  is  personified  as  agent,  the  Ablative  with  d  or  ab  may 
be  used  as  in  the  names  of  persons : 

Vinci  a  voluptate,  to  be  conquered  by  pleasure.  Cic.  A  fortuna  datam  oc- 
casionem,  an  opportunity  furnished  by  fortune.  Nep. 

II.  PERFECT  PARTICIPLES  denoting  parentage  or  birth — genibts,  natus, 
orlus,  etc. — generally  take  the  Ablative  without  a  preposition : 

Jove  natus,  son  of  Jupiter.  Cic.  Tantalo  prognatus,  descended  from  Tan- 
talus. Cic.  Parentibus  natl  humilibus,  born  of  humble  parents.  Cic. 

1  Here  note  the  distinction  between  the  Ablative  with  al  (al>  Oppianico),  denoting 
the  author  of  the  action,  the  Accusative  with  per  (per  Fabricios),  the  person  through 
whose  agency  the  action  was  performed,  and  the  Ablative  alone  (Numidls),  the  means 
of  the  action. 


ABLATIVE.  221 

NOTE.— In  designating  REMOTE  ANCESTBY,  a  or  ab  is  generally  used ;  but  after  ndtua 
and  ortus,  the  Ablatives  familia,  genere,  loco,  and  stirpe,  when  modified  by  an  adjec- 
tive, omit  the  preposition : 

Oriundl  ab  Sabinls,  descended  from  the  Sabines.  Liv.  OrtI  ab  Germanls,  sprung 
from  the  Germans.  Caes.  Nobill  genere  natus,  born  of  a  noble,  family.  Sail. 

III.  With  the  ABLATIVE  OF  MATERIAL,  e  or  ex  is  generally  used,  though 
often  omitted,  especially  in  poetry : 

Statua  ex  aere  facta,  a  statue  made  of  bronze.  Cic.  Pocula  ex  auro,  cups 
of  gold.  Cic.  Aere  cavo  clipeus,  a  shield  of  concave  bronze.  Verg.  Abiete 
puppis,  the  stern  made  of  fir.  Verg. 

NOTE  1. — A  special  use  of  the  Ablative,  kindred  to  the  above,  is  seen  with  facip,  fio, 
and  sum  in  such  expressions  as  the  following : 

Quid  hoc  homine  facias,  what  are  you  to  do  wit/i  this  man  ?  Cic.  Quid  illo  fiet, 
lohaticill  become  of  him?  Cic.  Quid  te  futurum  est,  ichatwill  become  of  you?  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— The  Dative  or  the  Ablative  with  de  occurs  in  nearly  the  same  sense : 

Quid  htiic  homini  facias,  what  are  you  to  do  with  (or  to)  this  man  ?  Cic.  Quid  de 
tG  futuruin  est,  what  icill  become  of  you?  Cic. 

416.  The  ABLATIVE  OF  CAUSE  is  generally  used  without  a  prepo- 
sition.1 It  designates  that  ty  reason  of  which,  because  of  which,  in 
accordance  with  which  anything  is  or  is  done,  and  is  used  both  with 
verbs  and  with  adjectives; 2  see  examples  under  413. 

I.  CAUSE  is  sometimes  denoted — 

1)  By  the  Ablative  with  a,  ab,  de,  e,  ex,  prae : 

Ab  eadem  superbia3  non  venire,  not  to  come  because  of  the  same  haughti- 
ness. Liv.  Ex  vulnere3  aeger,  ill  in  consequence  of  his  ivound.  Cic.  Ex 
invidia  laborare,  to  suffer  from  unpopularity.  Cic.  Non  prae  lacrimis  scrl- 
bere,  not  to  ivrite  iji  consequence  of  tears.  Cic. 

2)  By  the  Accusative  with  ob,  per,  propter : 

Per  aetatem  inutiles,  useless  because  of  (lit.,  through}  their  age.  Caes.  In 
oppidum  propter  timorem  sese  recipiunt,  they  betake  themselves  into  the  city 
on  account  of  their  fear.  Caes. 

NOTE  1.— With  transitive  verbs  the  motive  which  prompts  the  action  is  often  ex- 
pressed by  the  Ablative  with  a  perfect  passive  participle : 

Kegnl  cupiditate  4  inductus  conjurationem  fecit,  influenced  by  the  desire  of  ruling, 
he  formed  a  conspiracy.  Caes. 

NOTE  2.— That  in  accordance  with  ichich  anything  is  done  is  often  denoted  by  the 
Ablative  with  e  or  ex: 


1  The  Ablative  of  Cause  is  very  far  removed  from  the  original  meaning  of  the  Abla- 
tive, and  indeed  in  some  of  its  uses  was  probably  derived  from  the  Instrumental  Abla- 
tive; see  418. 

2  This  includes  such  Ablatives  as  meo  judicid,  in  accordance  with  my  opinion;  mea 
sententiii,  jmsti,  impulsu,  monitu,  etc. ;  causa,  gratia ;  also  the  Ablative  with  de- 
sipio,  doled,  exsilio,  eossulto,  gaudeo,  laboro,  lacrimo^  laetor^  triumpho,  etc. 

8  See  note  2,  foot-note. 

4  Hero  cupiditate  must  be  construed  with  inductus,  yet  it  really  expresses  the  cause 
of  the  action,  fecit. 


222  ABLATIVE. 

Kes  ex  foedere  repetuntur,  restitution  is  demanded  IN  ACCORDANCE  WITH  THE 
TREATY.  Liv.  Dies  ex  praeceptis  tuls  actus,  a  day  passed  IN  ACCORDANCE  WITH  YOUB 
PRECEPTS.  Cic.  Ex  veritate  aestimare,  to  estimate  in  accordance  with,  the  truth.  Cic. 
Ex  auctoritate  l  senatus  confirmare,  to  ratify  on  the  authority  of  the  senate.  Liv. 

RULE  XXIII.— Ablative  with  Comparatives. 

417.  Comparatives  without  QUAM  are  followed  by  the 
Ablative  : 3 

Nihil  est  amabilius  virtittef  nothing  is  more  lovely  THAN  VIRTUE.  Cic. 
Quid  est  melius  bonitate*  what  is  better  THAN  GOODNESS  ?  Cic.  Scimus  so- 
lem  majorem  esse  terra,3  we  know  that  the  sun  is  larger  than  the  earth.  Cic. 
Amlcitia,  qua  nihil  melius  habemus,  friendship,  than  which  we  have  nothing 
better.  Cic.  Lacrima  nihil  citius  arescit,  nothing  dries  sooner  than  a  tear. 
Cic.  Potiorem  Ira  salutem  habet,  he  regards  safety  as  better  than  anger.  Liv. 

1.  COMPARATIVES  WITH  QuAir  are  followed  by  the  Nominative,  or  by  the 
case  of  the  corresponding  noun  before  them : 

Hibernia  minor  quam  Britannia  existimatur,  Ireland  is  considered  smaller 
than  BRITAIN.  Caes.  Agrls  quam  urbl  terribilior,  more  terrible  to  the  country 
than  TO  THE  CITY.  Liv. 

NOTE  1.— The  construction  with  quam  is  the  full  form  for  which  the  Ablative  is  an 
abbreviation.  The  Ablative  is  freely  used  for  quam  with  a  Subject  Nominative  or  Sub- 
ject Accusative — regularly  so  for  quam  with  the  Nominative  or  Accusative  of  a  rela- 
tive pronoun,  as  in  the  fourth  example  under  the  rule.  In  other  cases  quam  is  retained 
in  the  best  prose,  though  sometimes  omitted  in  poetry. 

NOTE  2.— After  plus,  minus,  amplius,  or  longius,  in  expressions  of  number  and 
quantity,  quam  is  often  omitted  without  influence  upon  the  construction ;  *  sometimes 
also  after  major,  minor,  etc. : 

Tecum  plus  annum  vixit,  he  lived  icith  you  more  than  a  year.  Cic.  Minus  duo 
mllia,  less  than  two  thousand.  Liv. 

NOTE  3,— Instead  of  the  Ablative  after  a  comparative,  a  preposition  with  its  case,  as 
ante,  prae,  praeter,  or  supra,  is  sometimes  used : 

Ante  alios  i mm  amor,  more  monstrous  than  (before)  the  otfiers.  Verg. 

NOTE  4.— ALIUS,  involving  a  comparison,  other  than,  is  sometimes  used  with  the 
Ablative : 

1  These  and  similar  Ablatives  with  prepositions  show  the  transition  from  source  to 
cause,  and  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  the  latter  was  developed  from  the  former.  The 
Ablative  with  the  preposition  seems  in  general  to  retain  something  of  the  idea  of  source. 

a  This  Ablative  furnishes  the  standard  of  comparison— that  from  which  one  starts. 
Thus,  if  virtue  is  taken  as  the  standard  of  what  is  lovely,  nothing  is  more  so.  This  Abla- 
tive is  sometimes  explained  as  instrumental  (418),  but  that  view  is  controverted  by  a 
similar  use  of  the  Greek  Genitive,  which  does  not  contain  the  instrumental  Ablative,  and 
of  the  Sanskrit  Ablative,  which  is  often  distinct  from  the  instrumental. 

3  Virtute  =  quam  virtus  ;  oonitdte  =  quam  ftonitds  ;  terra  =  quam  terram  (sc. 
esse). 

4  So  in  expressions  of  age :  ndtus  plus  trlgintd  annos,  'having  been  born  more  than 
thirty  years.1    The  same  meaning  is  also  expressed  by  major  trlgintd  annos  ndtus, 
major  trigintd  annis,  major  quam  trigintd  annorum,  or  major  trlgintd  anndrum. 


ABLATIVE.  223 

Quaerit  alia  his,  he  seeks  other  things  than  these.  Plant.  Alius  sapiente,  other  than 
a  wise  man.  Hor. 

NOTE  5.— Quam  pro  denotes  disproportion,  and  many  Ablatives— oplnidne,  ftpe, 
aequo,  jiisto,  solito,  etc.— are  often  best  rendered  by  clauses : 

Minor  caedes  quam  pro  victoria,  less  slaughter  than  was  proportionate  to  the  vic- 
tory. Liv.  Berius  spG  venit,  he  came  later  than  was  hoped  (than  hope).  Liv.  Plus 
aequo,  more  than  is  fair.  Cic. 

2.  With  Comparatives,  the  MEASURE  OP  DIFFERENCE,1  the  amount  by 
which  one  thing  surpasses  another,  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative : 

Hibernia  dlmidio  minor  quam  Britannia,  Ireland  smaller  BY  ONE  HALF  than 
Britain.  Caes. 

II.  INSTKUMENTAL  ABLATIVE. 

418.  The  Instrumental  Ablative  denotes  both  Accom- 
paniment and  Means.2 

RULE  XXIV,— Ablative  of  Accompaniment* 

419.  The  Ablative  is  used — 

I.  To  denote  ACCOMPANIMENT.     It  then  takes  the  prepo- 
sition cum: 

Vivit  cum  Balbo,  he  lives  WITH  BALBUS*  Cic.  Cum  gladiis  stant,  they 
stand  with  swords  (i.  e.,  armed  WITH  swords).  Cic. 

II.  To  denote  CHARACTERISTIC  or  QUALITY.     It  is  then 
modified  by  an  adjective  or  by  a  Genitive  : 

Summa  virtute  adulescens,  a  youth  OF  THE  HIGHEST  YIRTUE.  Caes.  Qui- 
dam  magno  capite,  ore  rubicundo,  magnls  pedibus,  a  certain  one  with  a 
large  head,  with  a  red  face,  and  ivith  large  feet.  Plaut.  Catilma  ingenio 
malo  fuit,  Catiline  ivas  a  man  of  a  bad  spirit.  Sail.  Uri  sunt  specie  taurl, 
the  urns  is  (lit.,  the  uri  are)  of  the  appearance  of  a  butt.  Caes. 

NOTE.— The  Ablative,  when  used  to  denote  characteristic  or  quality,  may  be  called 
either  the  Descriptive  Ablative  or  the  Ablative  of  Characteristic. 

III.  To  denote  MAKNEK.S    It  then  takes  the  preposition 
cum,  or  is  modified  by  an  adjective  or  by  a  Genitive  : 

1  See  423. 

2  The  idea  of  means  was  probably  developed  from  that  of  accompaniment,  as  seen 
in  such  expressions  as  cum  omnibus  copils  sequitur^he  pursues  with  all  his  forces'— 
accompaniment,  which  readily  suggests  means,  as  he  employs  his  forces  as  means; 
equls  Iverunt,  'they  went  with  horses' — accompaniment  and  means.    Some  scholars 
have  conjectured  that  originally  accompaniment  and  means  were  expressed  by  separate 
case-forms,  but  of  this  there  seems  to  be  little  proof. 

3  Note  the  close  connection  between  these  three  uses  of  the  Ablative— the  first  desig- 
nating an  attendant  person  or  thing — ivWi  Balbus,  'with  sicords;  the  second,  an  at- 
tendant quality— a  youth  w ith  (attended  by)  the  highest  virtue ;  the  third,  an  attend' 


224:  ABLATIVE. 

Cum  virtute  vixit,  he  lived  VIRTUOUSLY.  Cic.  Summa  vi  proelium  com 
mlserunt,  they  joined  battle  WITH  THE  GREATEST  VIOLENCE.  Nep.  Duobug 
modis  fit,  it  is  done  in  two  ways.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  Ablative  of  mariner  sometimes  takes  cum  even  when  modified  by  an 
adjective : 

Mdgnd  cum  curd  scrlpsit,  7te  wrote  wmi  GREAT  CARE.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— But  the  Ablative  of  a  few  words  is  sometimes  used  without  cum-,  even 
when  unattended  by  an  adjefctivo,  as  jure,  'rightly';  injuria,  'unjustly';  ordine,  'in 
an  orderly  manner ';  ratione,  'systematically';  silentio,  'in  silence,'  etc.1 

NOTE  3.— Per,  with  the  Accusative,  sometimes  denotes  MANNER  :  per  vim,  'violent- 
ly ' ;  per  ludum, '  sportively.' 

1.  On  the  ABLATIVE  OF  ACCOMPANIMENT,  observe — 

1)  That  cum  is  often  omitted— (1)  especially  when  the  Ablative  is  qualified 
by  an  adjective,  and  (2)  after  jungO,  misceo,  and  their  compounds : 

Ingentl  exercitu  profectus  est,  he  set  out  with  a  large  army.  Liv.  Im- 
probitas  scelere  juncta,  depravity  joined  with  crime.  Cic. 

2)  That  the  Ablative  with  cum  is  often  used  of  hostile  encounters : 

Cum  Gallls  certare,  tojight  with  the  Gauls.  Sail.  Noblscum  hostes  con- 
tenderunt,  the  enemy  contended  with  us.  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  Dative  with  verbs  denoting  union  or  contention,  see  385,  4,  3). 

2.  On  the  DESCRIPTIVE  ABLATIVE,  as  compared  with  the  DESCRIPTIVE 
GENITIVE,  observe — 

1)  That  in  descriptions  involving  size  and  number,  the  Genitive  is  used; 
see  examples  under  396,  V. 

2)  That  in  most  descriptions  involving  external  characteristics,  parts  of  the 
body,  and  the  Wee,  the  Ablative  is  used,  as  in  the  second  and  fourth  examples 
under  419,  II. 

3)  That  in  other  instances  either  case  may  be  used. 

4)  That  the  Ablative,  like  the  Genitive,  may  be  used  either  with  nouns, 
as  in  the  first  and  second  examples  under  419,  II.,  or  with  verbs  in  the  predi- 
cate, as  in  the  other  examples. 

RUUS  XXV.— Ablative  of  Means. 

420.  INSTRUMENT  and  MEANS  are  denoted  by  the  Abla- 
tive: 

Cornibus  taurl  se  tutantur,  bulls  defend  themselves  WITH  THEIR  HORNS. 
Cic.  Gloria  djjcitur,  Jie  is  led  BY  GLORY.  Cic.  Sol  omnia  luce  coilustrat, 
the  sun  illumines  all  things  with  its  light.  Cic.  Lacte  vlvunt,  they  live  upon 
milk.  Caes.  Tellus  saucia  vomeribus,  the  earth  turned  (wounded)  with  the 
plouglishare.  Ovid. 

ant  circumstance— to  live  witfi  virtue,  virtuously.    Compare  cum  Balbb  vlvere  and 
cum  virtute  vlvere. 

1  But  perhaps  most  Ablatives  which  never  take  cum.  are  best  explained  as  the  Abla- 
tive of  cause— -as  Uge,  'according  to  law1;  consuttiidine,  'according  to  custom';  con- 
silio, '  on  purpose,1  etc. 


ABLATIVE.  225 

NOTE.— This  Ablative  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  is  used  both  with  verbs  and  with 
adjectives. 

1.  The  following  expressions  deserve  notice : 

1)  Quadraginta  hostils  sacrificare,  to  sacrifice  with  forty  victims.  Liv. 
Facere  vitula,  to  make  a  sacrifice  of  (lit.,  WITH)  a  female  calf.  Verg. 

2)  Fidibus  cantare,  to  play  upon  a  stringed  instrument.  Cic.    Pila  ludere, 
to  play  at  ball  (lit.,  WITH  THE  BALL).   Hor. 

3)  Aurelia  via  proficiscl,  to  set  out  by  the  Aurelian  way.  Cic.    Eodem 
itinere  Ire,  to  go  by  the  same  road.  Liv.    Esquillna  porta  ingredl,  to  enter  by 
the  Esquiline  gate.  Liv. 

4)  Virtute  praeditus,  possessed  of  virtue.   Cic.    Legiones  pulchrls  armls 
praeditas,  legions  furnished  with  beautiful  arms.  Plaut. 

2.  Adfido  with  the  Ablative  forms  a  very  common  circumlocution :  honore 
adficere  =  honorare,  to  honor  ;  admirdtione  adficere  —  admlrarl,  to  admire  ;  poe- 
nd  adficere  —  pumre,  to  punish,  etc. : 

Omnes  laetitia  adficit,  he  gladdens  all.  Cic. 

RULE  XXVI.— Ablative  in  Special  Constructions.1 

421.  The  Ablative  is  used — 

I.  With  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  their  compounds : 
Plurimis  rebus  fruimur  et  utimur,  ^oe  enjoy  and  use  YERY  MANY  THINGS. 

Cic.    Magna  est  praeda  potltus,  he  obtained  GREAT  BOOTY.  Nep.    Lacte  et 
carne  vescebantur,  they  lived  upon  milk  and  flesh.   Sail. 

II.  With  VERBS  and  ADJECTIVES  OF  PLENTY  : 

Villa  abundat  lacte,  cased,  melle ;  the  villa  abounds  IN  MILK,  CHEESE,  and 
HONEY.  Cic.  Urbs  referta  copiia,  a  city  filled  WITH  SUPPLIES.  Cic.  Virtute 
praeditus,  endowed  with  virtue.  Cic.  Deus  boms  explevit  mundum,  God 
has  filled  the  world  with  blessings.  Cic. 

III.  With  dignus,  indignus,2  and  contentus : 

Digm  sunt  amicitia,  they  are  worthy  OF  FRIENDSHIP.  Cic.  Vir  patre 
dfgnus,  a  man  worthy  OF  HIS  FATHER.  Cio.  Honore  indignissimus,  most  un- 
icorthy  of  honor.  Cic.  Natfira  parvo  contenta,  nature  content  with  little.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— Transitive  verbs  of  Plenty3  take  the  Accusative  and  Ablative: 

Armis  naves  onerat,  he  loads  the  ships  with  arms.  Sail.  See  also  the  last 
example  under  431,  II. 

NOTE  Z.—Dignor,  as  a  Passive  verb  meaning  'to  be  deemed  worthy,7 

1  This  Ablative  is  readily  explained  as  the  Ablative  of  means:  thus,  utor,  'I  use,'  'I 
serve  myself  by  means  of  ;  fruor,  4I  enjoy,1  'I  delight  myself  wtth? ;  veseor,  4I  feed 
upon,' 1 1  feed  myself  witlij  etc. 

3  The  nature  of  the  Ablative  with  dlgnus  and  indignus  is  somewhat  uncertain.  On 
etymological  grounds  it  is  explained  as  instrumental;  see  Delbruck,  p.  72;  Corssen, 
'Krit.  Beitr.,'  p.  47. 

3  Transitive  verbs  of  plenty  mean  'to  fill,'  'to  furnish  with,'  etc,,  as  cumuW^  com- 
pleo,  impleo,  imbuo,  InstruO,  onero,  orno,  etc. 
11 


226  ABLATIVE. 

takes  the  Ablative ;  but  as  a  Deponent  verb  meaning  '  to  deem  worthy,'  used 
only  in  poetry  and  late  prose,  it  takes  the  Accusative  and  Ablative  : 

Honore  dlgnati  sunt,  they  have  been  deemed  worthy  of  honor.  Cic.  Me 
dlgnor  honore,  I  deem  myself  worthy  of  honor.  Verg. 

NOTE  8. — Dlgnus  and  indlgnus  occur  with  the  Genitive : 

Dignus  salutis,  worthy  of  safety.  Plaut.  Indlgnus  avorum,  ivnworthy  of  their  an- 
cestors. Verg. 

NOTE  4.—Utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  and  vescor,  originally  transitive,  are  occa- 
sionally so  used  in  classic  authors.  Their  participle  in  due  is  passive  in  sense.  Utor 
admits  two  Ablatives  of  the  same  person  or  thing : 

Me  utetur  patre,  he  will  find  (use)  me  a  father.  Ter. 

NOTE  5.— For  the  Genitive  with  potior ;  see  41 0,  Y.,  3.  For  the  Genitive  with  verbs 
and  adjectives  of  plenty,  and  for  the  Accusative  and  Genitive  with  transitive  verbs 
of  plenty,  see  410,  Y.,  1,  with  foot-note,  and  399, 1.,  3. 

RULE  XXVH.— Ablative  of  Price. 

422.  PKICE  is  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative : 

Vendidit  auro  patriam,  he  sold  his  country  FOB  GOLD.  Yerg.  Conduxit  mag- 
no  domum,  he  hired  a  house  AT  A  HIGH  PRICE.  Cic.  Multo  sanguine  Poems 
victoria  stetit,  the  victory  cost  the  Carthaginians  (stood  to  the  Carthaginians 
at)  much  blood.  Liv.  Qumquaginta  talehtis  aestimarl,  to  be  valued  at  ffty 
talents.  Nep.  Vile  est  vlginti  minis,  it  is  cheap  at  twenty  minae.  Plaut. 

NOTE  1.— The  ABLATIVE  OF  PRICE  is  used  (1)  with  verbs  of  buying,  selling,  hiring, 
letting  ;  (2)  of  costing,  of  being  cheap  or  dear  ;  *  (3)  of  valuing ;  (4)  with  adjectives  of 
value.1 

NOTE  2. — With  verbs  of  EXCHANGING — muto,  commutd,  etc. — (1)  the  thing  received 
is  generally  treated  as  the  price,  as  with  verbs  of  selling,  but  (2)  sometimes  the  thing 
given  is  treated  as  the  price,  as  with  verbs  of  buying,  or  is  put  in  the  Ablative  with  cwm : 

Pace  bellum  mutavit,  he  exchanged  war  FOE  PEACE.  Sail.  Exsilium  patria  muta- 
vit,  he  exclianged  HIS  COUNTRY  for  exile.  Curt.  Cum  patriae  caritate  gloriam  commu- 
tavit,  he  exchanged  love  of  country  for  glory.  Cic. 

NOTE  3.— For  the  GENITIVE  OF  PRICE,  see  405. 

RULE  XXVIII.— Ablative  of  Difference. 

423.  The  MEASURE  OF  DIFFERENCE  is  denoted  by  the 
Ablative : 

Uno  die  longiorem  mensem  faciunt,  tliey  make  the  month  ONE  DAY  longer 
(longer  BY  ONE  DAY).  Cic.  Biduo  me  antecessit,  he  preceded  me  BY  TWO 
DAYS.  Cic.  Sol  multls  partibus  major  est  quam  terra,  the  sun  is  very  much 
(lit.,  BY  MANY  PARTS)  larger  than  the  earth.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — The  Ablative  is  thus  used  with  all  words  involving  a  comparison,  but  ad- 
verbs often  supply  its  place :  multum  robustior,  '  much  more  robust.' 

NOTE  2.— The  Ablative  of  difference  includes  the  Ablative  of  distance  (379,  2),  and 
the  Ablative  with  ante,  post,  and  dbhinc  in  expressions  of  time  (430). 

1  As  sto,  consto,  liceo,  sum,  etc. ;  carus,  venulis,  etc. 


ABLATIVE.  227 

RULE  XXIX.— Specification. 

424.  A  noun,  adjective,  or  verb  may  take  an  Ablative 
to  define  its  application  : 

Agesilaup  nomine,  non  poteslate  fuit  rex,  Agesilaus  was  king  IN  NAME, 
no^  IN  POWER.  Nep.  Claudus  altero  pede,  lame  IN  ONE  FOOT.  Nep.  Mori- 
bus  similes,  similar  in  character.  Cic.  Reliquos  Gallos  virtute  praecedunt, 
they  surpass  the  other  Gauls  in  courage.  Caes. 

NOTE  1. — This  ABLATIVE  shows  in  what  respect  or  particular  anythiog  is  true : 
thus,  king  (in  what  respect?)  in  name. 

NOTE  2.— -For  the  ACCUSATIVE  OP  SPECIFICATION,  see  378. 

III.  LOCATIVE  ABLATIVE. 
RULE  XXX.— Place  in  which. 

425.  The  PLACE  IN  WHICH  is  denoted — 

I.  Generally  by  the  Locative  Allative l  witli  the  preposi- 
tion in : 

Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  ivas  IN  ITALY.  Nep.  In  nostrls  castris, 
in  our  camp.  Caes.  In  Appia  via,  on  the  Appian  way.  Cic. 

II.  In  NAMES  or  TOWNS  by  the  Locative*  if  such  a 
form  exists,  otherwise  by  the  Locative  AUative : 

Romae  fuit,  he  was  AT  ROME.  Cic.  Corinthl  pueros  docebat,  he  taught 
boys  AT  CORINTH.  Cic.  Athenis  fuit,  he  was  AT  ATHENS.  Cic.  Hoc  facis 
Argis,  you  do  this  at  Argos.  Hor.  Karthagine  reges  creabantur,  kings 
were  elected  (created)  at  Carthage.  Nep.  Gadibus  vixit,  he  lived  at  Gades. 
Cic. 

NOTE. — For  the  construction  with  verbs  meaning  to  collect,  to  come  together,  and 
with  those  meaning  to  place,  see  380,  note. 

1.  In  the  names  of  places  which  are  not  towns,  the  LOCATIVE  ABLATIVE 
is  often  used  without  a  preposition : 

1)  When  the  idea  of  means,  manner,  or  came  is  combined  with  that  of 
place : 3 

Castris  se  tenuit,  he  Icept  himself  IN  CAMP.  Caes.  Aliquem  tecto  recipere, 
to  receive  any  one  IN  ONE'S  OWN  HOUSE.  Cic,  Proelio  cadere,  to  fall  IN  BATTLE. 
Caes.  Adulescentibus  delectari,  to  take  pleasure  in  the  young.  Cic.  Sua 

1  The  learner  will  remember  that  the  Locative  Ablative  does  not  differ  in  form  from 
any  other  Ablative;  see  411. 

2  See  48,  4;  51,  8;  66,  4.    The  Locative  was  the  original  construction  in  all  names 
of  places. 

3  In  some  cases  place  and  means  are  so  combined  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
which  is  the  original  conception. 


228  ABLATIVE. 

victoria  gloriantur,  they  glory  in  their  victory.  Caes.    Nulld  officio  assuefactl, 
trained  in  no  duty.  Caes. 

NOTE.— The  Ablative  is  generally  used  with  fldd,  cbnfldO,  nltor,  innitor,  and  fretus : 
Nem6  fortunae  stabilitate  conf  Jdit,  no  one  trusts  (confides  in)  the  stability  of  for- 
tune. Cic.    Salfis  veritate  nltitur,  safety  rests  upon  truth.  Cic.    Fretus  amlcis,  relying 
upon  his  friends.  Liv. 

2)  When  the  idea  of  place  isjigurative  rather  than  literal: 
Nova  pectore  versat  consilia,  she  devises  (turns  over)  new  plans  IN  HER 
BREAST.  Verg.  Stare  judiciis,  to  abide  BY  (stand  IN)  THE  DECISIONS.  Cic. 
Pro  missis  manere,  to  remain  true  to  promises  (lit.,  remain  IN).  Verg.  Pcn- 
dere  animls,1  to  be  perplexed  in  mind.  Cic.  Intirnis  sensibus  angl,  to  be 
troubled  in  one's  inmost  feelings.  Cic.  Ferox  bello,  valiant  in  war.  Hor. 
Jure  perltus,  skilled  in  law.  Cic. 

2.  The  Ablatives  loco,  locls,  partc,  partibus,  dexlra,  laeva,  sinistra,  terra, 
and  marl9  especially  when  qualified  by  an  adjective,  and  other  Ablatives 
when  qualified  by  totus,  are  generally  used  without  the  preposition : 

Aliquid  loco  ponere,  to  put  anytJiing  IN  ITS  PLACE.  Cic.  Terra  manque,  on 
land  and  sea.  Liv.  Tota  Graecia,  in  all  Greece.  Nep. 

NOTE  1.— The  Ablative  libro,  'book,1  generally  takes  the  preposition  when  used  of  a 
portion  of  a  work,  but  omits  it  when  used  of  an  entire  treatise : 

In  ef>  libro,  in  this  book  (referring  to  a  portion  of  the  work).  Cic.  Alio  libro,  in  an- 
other work.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— Other  Ablatives  sometimes  occur  without  the  preposition,  especially  when 
qualified  by  omnis,  medius,  or  universus  : 

Omnibus  oppidis,  in  all  the  towns.  Caes. 

NOTE  3.— In  poetry  the  Locative  Ablative  is  often  used  without  the  preposition : 

Lucis  opacls,  in  sliady  groves.  Verg.  Silvia  agrisque,  in  the  forests  and  fields.  O  v. 
Theatris,  in  the  theatres.  Hor.  Ferre  umero,  to  bear  upon  the  shoulder.  Verg. 

3.  ABLATIVE  FOR  THE  LOCATIVE. — Instead  of  the  Locative  in  names  of 
towns  the  Ablative  is  used,  with  or  without  a  preposition — 

1)  When  the  proper  name  is  qualified  by  an  adjective  or  adjective  pronoun : 

In  ipsa  Alexandria,2  in  Alexandria  itself.  Cic.    Longa  Alba,  at  Alba 
Longa.  Verg. 
.    2)  Sometimes  when  not  thus  modified: 

In  monte  Albano  Lavinioque,  on  the  Alban  mount  and  at  Lavinium.  Liv. 
In  Alexandria,2  at  Alexandria.  Liv. 

NOTE.— The  following  special  constructions  deserve  notice: 

In  oppido  Citio,3  in  the  town  Oittum.  Nep.  Albae,4  inurbe  opportunu,  at  Alba,  a 
convenient  city.  Cic. 

1  In  the  singular  animl  is  generally  used,  a  Locative  probably  both  in  form  and  in 
signification;  see  p.  211,  foot-note  4. 

3  At  Alexandria  would  regularly  be  expressed  by  the  Locative,  Alexandrlae. 

3  Here  Citio  is  in  apposition  with  oppido,  the  usual  construction  in  such  cases,  though 
a  Genitive  limiting  oppido  occurs:  In  oppido  Antiochiae,  in  the  city  ofAntioch.  Cic. 

*  A  Locative  may  thus  be  followed  by  in  urbe,  or  in  oppido,  modified  by  an  adjec- 
tive; but  see  363,  4,  2).  The  preposition  in  is  sometimes  omitted. 


ABLATIVE.  £29 

.    426.  LIKE  NAMES  OF  TOWJSTS  are  used — 

1.  Many  NAMES  OF  ISLANDS: 

Lesbl  vlxit,  he  lived  in  Lesbos.  Nep.  Conon  Cyprl  vlxit,  Conon  lived  in 
Cyprus.  Nep. 

2.  The  LOCATIVES  domi,  ruri,  humi,  militiae,  and  belli : 

Domi  militiaeque,  at  home  and  in  the  field.  Cic.  Run  agere  vitam,  to 
spend  life  in  the  country.  Liv. 

NOTE.— A  few  other  Locatives  also  occur : 

Romae  Numidiaeque,  at  Rome  and  in  Numidia.  Sail.  Domum  Chersonesi  habuit, 
he  had  a  house  in  the  Ghersonesus.  Nep.  Truncum  rellquit  arenae,1  he  left  the  ~body 
in  the  sand.  Verg. 

427.  SUMMAKY. — The  NAMES  OF  PLACES  NOT  TOWNS  are  gen- 
erally put — 

I.  In  the  Accusative  with  ad  or  in,  to  denote  the  PLACE  TO  WHICH  : 
In  Asiam  redit,  he  returns  to  (into)  Asia.  Nep. 

II.  In  the  Ablative  with  ab,  de,  or  ex,  to  denote  the  PLACE  FROM  WHICH  : 
Ab  urbe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  out  from  the  city.  Caes. 

III.  In  the  Locative  Ablative  with  in,  to  denote  the  PLACE  AT  or  IN  WHICH  : 
Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  was  in  Italy.  Nep. 

NOTE.— For  qualifications  and  exceptions,  see  380,  3  and  4;  413,  2;  435, 1  and  2. 

428.  SUMMARY. — The  NAMES  OF  TOWNS  are  put2 — 

I.  In  the  Accusative,  to  denote  the  PLACE  TO  WHICH  : 
Nuntius  Eomam  redit,  the  messenger  returns  to  Rome.  Liv. 

II.  In  the  Ablative,  to  denote  the  PLACE  FROM  WHICH  : 
Fugit  Corintho,  he  fled  from  Corinth.  Cic. 

III.  In  the  Locative,  or  in  the  Locative  Ablative*  to  denote  the  PLACE  AT 
or  IN  WHICH  : 

Corinth!  pueros  docebat,  he  taught  loys  at  Corinth.  Cic.  Gadibus  vlxit, 
he  lived  at  Gades.  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  qualifications  and  exceptions,  see  380, 1 ;  413,  8;  435,  8. 

RULE  XXXI.— Time. 

429.  The  TIME  of  an  Action  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative : 

Octogesimo  anno  est  mortuus,  he  died  IN  HIS  EIGHTIETH  YEAR.  Cic.  Vere 
convenere,  they  assembled  IN  THE  SPRING.  Liv.  Natal!  die  suo,  on  his  birth- 

1  Bo  also  terrae  and  vlclniae. 

2  This,  the  original  construction  for  all  names  of  places,  has  been  retained  unchanged 
only  in  the  names  of  towns  and  in  a  few  other  words.    Most  names  of  places  have  as- 
sumed &  preposition  with  the  Accusative  and  Ablative,  and  have  substituted  the  Loca- 
tive Ablative  with  a  preposition  in  place  of  the  Locative;  see  411,  III. 

3  That  is,  the  Locative  is  used  if  any  such  form  exists;  if  not,  the  Locative  Ablative 
supplies  its  place. 


230  ABLATIVE. 

day.  Nep.  Hieme  et  aestate,  in  winter  and  summer.  Cic.  Soils  occasu,  at 
sunset.  Caes.  Adventu  Caesaris,  on  the  arrival  of  Caesar.  Caes.  Ludls, 
at  the  time  of  the  games.  Cic.  Vix  decem  annls,  scarcely  in  ten  years.  Nep. 
His  viginti  annls,  within  these  twenty  years.  Cic. 

1.  Certain  relations  of  TIME  are  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  in  or  de : 
In  tall  tempore,1  at  such  a  time  (i.  e.,  under  such  circumstances).   Liv.    In 

diebus  proximis  decem,1  in  the  next  ten  days.  Sail.  De  media  nocte,  in  (lit., 
from,  out  of)  the  middle  of  the  night.  Caes. 

2.  Certain  relations  of  TIME  are  denoted  by  the  Accusative  with  ad,  in, 
inter,  intra,  sub,  etc. : 

Ad  constitutam  diem,  at  the  appointed  day.  Cic.  Ad  cenam  invltare  in 
posterum  diem,  to  invite  to  dinner  for  the  next  day.  Cic.  Intra  viginti  dies, 
within  twenty  days.  Plaut.  Inter  tot  annos,  within  so  many  years.  Cic. 
Sub  noctem,  toward  night.  Caes. 

430.  The  INTERVAL  between  two  events  may  be  denoted  by 
the  Accusative  or  Ablative  with  ante  or  post : 2 

Aliquot  post  menses 3  occlsus  est,  he  was  put  to  death  some  months  after. 
Cic.  Post  dies  paucos  venit,  he  came  after  a  few  days.  Liv.  Paucls  ante 
diebus,3  afeio  days  before.  Cic.  Homerus  annls  multls  fuit  ante  Romulum, 
Homer  lived  many  years  before  Romulus.  Cic.  Paucls  diebus  post  ejus  mor- 
tem, a  few  days  after  his  death.  Cic.  Annls  qulngentls  post,/#e  hundred 
years  after.  Cic.  Quartum  post  annum  quam  redierat,  four  years  after  he 
had  returned.  Nep.  Nono  anno  postquam,  nine  years  after.  Nep.  Sexto 
anno  quam  erat  expulsus,  six  years  after  he  had  been  banished.  Nep. 

NOTE  1.— In  these  examples  observe— 

1)  That  the  numeral  may  be  either  cardinal,  as  in  the  sixth  example,  or  ordinal,  as  in 
the  last  three.4 

2)  That  with  the  Accusative  ante  and  post  either  precede  the  numeral  and  the  noun, 
or  stand  between  them;  but  that  with  the  Ablative  they  either  follow  both,  or  stand 
between  them.5 

8)  That  quam  may  follow  ante  and  post,  as  in  the  seventh  example ;  may  be  united 
with  them,  as  in  the  eighth,  or  may  be  used  for  postquam,  as  in  the  ninth. 
NOTE  2.— The  ABLATIVE  OF  THE  EELATIVE  may  be  used  for  postquam  : 
Quatriduo,  quo  occlsus  est,  four  days  after  he  was  killed.  Cic. 

1  The  Ablative  with  in  is  used  to  denote  .(1)  the  circumstances  of  the  time,  and  (2) 
the  time  in  or  within  ^cMch.    In  the  second  sense  it  is  used  especially  after  numeral 
adverbs  and  in  designating  the  periods  of  life :  bis  in  die,  *  twice  in  the  day ' ;  in  pueri- 
tid, '  in  boyhood,'  etc. 

2  In  two  instances  the  Ablative  with  abJiinc  is  used  like  the  Ablative  with  ante : 
Abhinc  trlginta  diebus,  thirty  days  before.  Cic. 

3  The  Accusative  after  ante  and  post  depends  upon  the  preposition,  but  the  Ablative 
is  explained  as  the  measure  of  difference  (423). 

4  Thus, '  five  years  after'  =  quinque  annls  post,  or  quinto  anno  post;  or  post  quln- 
que  annos,  or  post  qulntum  awnuin;  or  with  post  between  the  numeral  and  the  noun, 
quinque  post  annls,  etc. 

5  Any  other  arrangement  is  rare. 


ABLATIVE.  231 

NOTE  3. — The  time  since  an  event  may  be  denoted  by  the  Accusative  with  abhinc  or 
ante,  or  by  the  Ablative  with  a/nte : 1 

Abhinc  annos  trecentos  fuit,  he  hved  three  hundred  years  ago.  Cic.  Faucis  ante 
dicbus  erupit  ex  urbe,  he  broke  out  of  the  city  a  few  days  ago.  Cic. 

RULE  XXXII.— Ablative  Absolute.* 

431.  A  noun  and  a  participle  may  be  put  in  the  Abla- 
tive to  add  to  the  predicate  an  attendant  circumstance : 

Servio  regnante  viguerunt,  they  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Servius  (Ser- 
vius  reigning).3  Cic.  Regibus  exactis,  consules  ereati  s\inty  after  the  ban- 
ishment of  the  kings*  consuls  were  appointed.  Liv.  Equitatu  praemisso, 
subsequebatur,  having  sent  forward  his  cavalry,  he  followed.  Caes.  Reg- 
num  baud  satis  prosperum  neglecta  rgligione,  a  reign  not  sufficiently  pros- 
perous because  religion  was  neglected.  Liv.  Perditis  rebus  omnibus  tamen 
virtus  se  sustentare  potest,  though  all  things  are  lost,  still  virtue  is  able  to 
sustain  itself.  Cic.  Obsidibus  imperatls,  hos  Aeduls  tradit,5  having  de- 
manded hostages,  he  delivers  them  to  the  Aedui.  Caes. 

1.  The  Ablative  Absolute,  much  more  common  than  the  English  Nomina- 
tive Absolute,  generally  expresses  the  time,  cause,  or  some  attendant  circum- 
stance of  an  action. 

2.  This  Ablative  is  generally  best  rendered— (1)  by  a  noun  with  a  prepo- 
sition— in,  during,  after,  by,  ivith,  through,  etc. ;  (2)  by  an  active  participle 
with  its  object ;  or  (3)  by  a  clause  with  when,  while,  because,  if,  though,  etc. ; 6 
see  examples  above. 

3.  A  connective  sometimes  accompanies  the  Ablative : 

Nisi  munltls  castrls,  unless  the  camp  should  be  fortified.   Caes. 

4.  A  noun  and  an  adjective,  or  even  two  nouns,  may  be  in  the  Ablative 
Absolute : 7 

1  The  Accusative  is  explained  as  duration  of  time  (379),  the  Ablative  as  measure 
of  difference  (433). 

2  This  Ablative  is  called  absolute,  because  it  is  not  directly  dependent  for  its  con- 
struction upon  any  other  word  in  the  sentence.    Originally  Locative,  it  was  first  used  to 
denote  situation  or  time,  a  meaning  from  which  its  later  uses  may  be  readily  derived. 
Thus,  while  the  force  of  a  Locative  Ablative  is  apparent  in  Servio  regnante  and  in  regi- 
bus  exactis,  it  is  recognized  without  difficulty  in  neglecta  rsligione  as  indicating  the 
situation  or  state  of  things  in  which  the  reign  was  not  prosperous.    In  some  instances, 
however,  the  Ablative  Absolute  may  be  instrumental  or  causal. 

3  Or,  while  Servius  was  reigning  or  was  king. 

4  Or,  after  the  kings  were  banished. 

6  In  this  example  obsidibus  and  hos  refer  to  the  same  persons.  This  is  unusual,  as 
in  this  construction  the  Ablative  generally  refers  to  some  person  or  thing  not  otherwise 
mentioned  in  the  clause  to  which  it  belongs. 

6  The  first  method  of  translation  comes  nearer  the  original  Latin  conception,  but  the 
other  methods  generally  accord  better  with  the  English  idiom. 

7  This  construction  is  peculiar  to  the  Latin.    In  the  corresponding  constructions  in 
Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  English,  the  present  participle  of  the  verb  '•to  be"1  is  used. 


232  CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 

Sereno  caelo,  when,  the  sky  is  clear.  Sen.  Canlnio  consule,  in  the  consul* 
ship  of  Caninius.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— An  infinitive  or  clause  may  be  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  with  a  neuter 
participle  or  adjective : 

Audito  Barium  movisse,  pergit,  having  heard  that  Darius  had  withdrawn  (that 
Darius  had,  etc.,  having  been  heard),  lie  advanced.  Curt.  Multi,  incerto  quid  vitarent, 
interierunt,  many,  uncertain  ichat  they  should  avoid  (what  they,  etc.,  being  uncertain), 
perished.  Liv. 

NOTE  2.— A  participle  or  adjective  may  stand  alone  in  the  Ablative  Absolute : 

Multum  certato,  pervlcit,  he  conquered  after  a  hard  struggled  Tac. 

NOTE  3.—Quisque  or  ipse  in  the  Nominative  may  accompany  the  Ablative  Absolute : 

Multis  sib!  quisque  petentibus,  while  many  sought,  each  for  himself.  Sail.  Causa 
ipse  pro  so  dicta  damnatur,  having  himself  advocated  his  own  cause,  lie  is  con- 
demned. Liv. 

NOTE  4.— For  the  use  of  absente  and  praesente  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  with  a 
plural  noun  or  pronoun,  see  438,  6,  note. 

SECTION   VIII. 

CASES   WITH    PREPOSITIONS. 
RULE  XXXIII,— Cases  with  Prepositions* 

432.  The  Accusative  and  Ablative  may  be  used  with 
prepositions : 2 

Ad  amlcum  scrips!,  I  have .  written  to  a  friend.  Cic.  In  curiam,  into  the 
senate-house.  Liv.  In  Italia,  in  Italy.  Nep.  Pro  castris,  before  the  camp. 

433.  The  ACCUSATIVE  is  used  with— 

Ad,  adversus  (adversum),  ante,  apud,  circa,  circuin,  circiter,  cis,  citra, 
contra,  erga,  extra,  infra,  inter,  intra,  juxta,  ob,  penes,  per,  pone,  post, 
praeter,  prope,  propter,  secundum,  supra,  trans,  ultra,  versus : 

Ad  urbem,  to  the  city.  Cic.  Adversus  deos,  toward  the  god$.  Cic.  Ante 
lucem,  before  light.  Cic.  Apud  concilium,  in  the  presence  of  the  council.  Cic. 
Circa  forum,  around  the  forum.  Cic.  Citra  flumen,  on  this  side  of  the  river. 
Cic.  Contra  naturam,  contrary  to  nature.  Cic.  Intra  muros,  within  the 
walls.  Cic.  Post  castra,  behind  the  camp.  Caes.  Secundum  naturam,  ac- 
cording to  nature.  Cic.  Trans  Alpes,  across  the  Alps.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— Exadversus  (um)  also  occurs  with  the  Accusative : 

Exadversus  eum  locum,  over  against  that  place.  Cic.    See  also  437. 

NOTE  2. —  Versus  (um)  and  usque,  as  adverbs,  often  accompany  prepositions,  es- 
pecially ad  and  in : 

Ad  oceanum  versus,  toward  the  ocean.  Caes.  Ad  meridiem  versus,  toward  the 
south.  Liv.  Usque  ad  castra  hostium,  even  to  the  camp  of  the  enemy.  Caes. 

1  Literally,  it  having  "been  much  contested.    The  participle  is  used  impersonally. 

2  On  the  general  subject  of  Prepositions  and  their  Use,  see  Koby,  II.,  pp.  351-456  j 
Draeger,  I.,  pp,  574-665;  Kuhner-  II.,  pp.  355-432, 


CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS.  233 

NOTE  8.— For  propius,  proxime,  propior,  and  proximus,  with  the  Accusative,  see 
prope,  note  2,  under  I.,  below. 

NOTE  4.— For  compounds  of  prepositions,  see  372  and  376. 

I.  The  following  uses  of  prepositions  with  the  Accusative  deserve  notice : l 
Ad,  TO,  the  opposite  ofab,  FROM — (1)  TO,  TOWARD,  TILL  ;  (2)  NEAR,  AT,  ON: 
ad  me,  l  to  me,'  l  near  me,1  '  at  my  house ' ;  ad  urbem,  '  to  the  city,*  *  near  the 
city ' ;  ad  dextram, '  on  the  right ' ;  ad  multam  noctem, '  till  late  in  the  night ' ; 
ad  lucem,  l  till  daybreak ' ;  ad  hdc,  '  besides  this,'  *  moreover ' ;  ad  verbum, 
1  word  for  word ' ;  ad  hunc  modum,  '  after  this  manner ' ;  ad  ultimum,  '  at 
last7 ;  ad  unum  omnes, l  all  to  a  man,*  *  all  without  exception.' 

Apud,  NEAR,  AT,  BEFORE,  IN  THE  PRESENCE  OF  i  apud  oppidum,  '  near  or 
before  the  town ' ;  apud  me,  '  at  my  house ' ;  sum  apud  me,  ' 1  am  at  home ' 
or  ' 1  am  in  my  right  mind '  ;  apud  Platdnem,  '  in  the  works  of  Plato.7 

Ante,  BEFORE,  IN  FRONT  OF,  ABOVE,  IN  PREFERENCE  TO  I  ante  SUOS  annOS, 

'  before  his  time,'  '  too  early ' ;  ante  tempus,  '  before  the  proper  time ' ;  ante 
annum,  '  a  year  before ' ;  ante  urbem  conditam,  l  before  the  founding  of  the 
city' ;  ante  alios  pulcherrimus  omnes,lfhQ  most  beautiful  above  all  others.' 

Circum,  circa,  circiter,2  ROUND,  AROUND,  ABOUT  :  eircum  forum, 
*  around  the  forum ' ;  circa  se, l  around  or  with  himself  ;  circa  eandem  Jioram, 
'  about  the  same  hour ' ;  circiter  meridiem,  'about  midday.' 

NOTE. — Circum,  the  oldest  of  these  forms,  is  used  only  of  place;  circa,  both  of 
place  and  of  time  ;  circiter,  rare  as  a  preposition,  chiefly  of  time.  They  are  all  freely 
used  as  adverbs :  eircum  convenire,  '  to  gather  around ' ;  circa  esse, '  to  be  around ' ; 
circiter  pars  quarta, '  about  the  fourth  part.1 

Cis,  citra,3  ON  THIS  SIDE— cis  opposed  to  trans,  ACROSS,  ON  THE  OTHER 
SIDE  ;  citra  opposed  to  ultra,  BEYOND  :  cisflumen, l  on  this  side  of  the  stream ' ; 
cis  paucos  dies,  *  within  a  few  days ' ;  citra  veritdtem,  l  short  of  the  truth ' ; 
citra  auctoritatem, l  without  authority.' 

Contra/,3  OPPOSITE  TO,  OVER  AGAINST,  AGAINST,  CONTRARY  TO  :  contra  eds 
regiones, t  opposite  to  those  regions' ;  contra  populum,  '  against  the  people ' ; 
contra  ndturam,  '  contrary  to  nature.' 

Erga,4  TOWARD,  TO,  AGAINST:  erga  parentes,  'toward  parents';  odium 
ergo,  Edmanos,  '  hatred  to  the  Eomans ' ;  erga  regem,  l  against  the  king.' 

Extra,  OUTSIDE,  WITHOUT,  FREE  FROM,  EXCEPT  :  extra  portam,  '  outside 
the  gate';  extra  culpam,  'without  fault,'  'free  from  fault';  extra  ducem, 
'  except  the  leader,'  *  besides  the  leader.' 

Infra,5  BELOW,  UNDER,  BENEATH,  LESS  THAN,  AFTER,  LATER  THAN,  opposed 
to  supra,  ABOVE  :  Infra  lunam,  '  beneath  the  moon ' ;  Infra  me,  '  below  me ' ; 
Infra  ires  ped'es,  '  less  than  three  feet' ;  Infra  Lycurgum,  '  after  Lycurgus.' 

1  For  iheform  and  meaning  of  prepositions  in  composition,  see  34=4,  5. 

2  These  three  forms  are  all  derived  from  circus, l a  circle'  (L  e.,  from  its  stem) ;  sea 
804;  307,  note  1. 

3  These  are  often  adverbs. 

4  According  to  Vanicek,  from  e  and  the  root  reg  in  regd;  4n  the  direction  of  (lit., 
from  the  direction  of).    In  Tacitus,  sometimes  IN  RELATION  TO  :  erga  domum  suam\ 
'in  relation  to  his  own  household.1 

6  Infra  =  infer  a  parte, '  in  the  lower  part4 


234  CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 

Inter,1  BETWEEN,  AMONG,  IN  THE  MIDST  OF  :  inter  urbem  et  Tiberim,  *  be- 
tween the  city  and  the  Tiber' ;  inter  bonds,  4  among  the  good ' ;  inter  manus, 
1  in  the  hands,'  4  within  reach,'  l  tangible ' ;  inter  nos,  '  between  us,'  '  in  con- 
fidence ' ;  inter  s~e  amdre,  '  to  love  one  another ' ;  inter  se  diffewe,  4  to  differ 
from  one  another' ;  inter  paucos,  inter  pauca,  l  especially,'  'preeminently' ; 
inter  paucos  disertus,  '  preeminently  eloquent' ;  inter  purpuram  atqueaurum, 
1  in  the  midst  of  purple  and  gold.' 

Intra,  WITHIN,  LESS  THAN,  BELOW,  opposed  to  extra,  ON  THE  OUTSIDE, 
WITHOUT  :  intrd  castra,  l  within  the  camp ' ;  intrd  me,  4  within  me ' ; 2  intrd 
se,  *  in  his  mind '  or  l  in  their  minds ' ; 3  intrd  centum,  l  less  than  one  hundred '  T 
intrd  modum,  l  within  the  limit ' ;  intrd  fdmam,  '  below  his  reputation.' 

Ob,  BEFORE,  IN  VIEW  OF,  IN  REGARD  TO,  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  I    ob  OCuloS,  4  before 

one's  eyes ' ;  ob  stultitiam  tuam,  '  in  view  of  your  folly,'  or  '  in  regard  to  your 
folly ' ;  ob  hanc  rem,  '  in  view  of  this  thing,'  '  for  this  reason,'  '  on  this  ac- 
count ' ;  quam  ob  rem,  l  in  view  of  which  thing,'  4  wherefore.' 

Per,4  THROUGH,  BY  THE  AID  OF  :  perforum, 4  through  the  forum ' ;  per  alias, 
4  through  others,'  '  by  the  aid  of  others ' ;  per  se,  c  by  his  own  efforts,'  also 
*  in  himself,'  4  in  itself  ;  per  metum, '  through  fear' ;  per  aetdtem,  4  in  conse- 
quence of  age ' ;  per  ludum,  4  sportively ' ;  per  vim,  l  violently ' ;  per  me  licet, 
4  it  is  allowable  as  far  as  I  am  concerned '  (i.  e.,  I  make  no  opposition). 

Post,  BEHIND,  AFTER,  SINCE  :  post  montem,  4  behind  the  mountain ' ;  post 
dtdicdtionem  templl,  l  after  the  dedication  of  the  temple '  ;  post  Tiominum 
memoriam,  4  since  the  memory  of  man.' 

Praeter,5  BEFORE,  ALONG,  PAST,  BY,  BEYOND,  BESIDES,  EXCEPT,  CONTRARY 
TO  :  praeter  oculos,  4  before  their  eyes ' ;  praeter  oram,  4  along  the  coast ' ; 
praeter  ceteros, 4  beyond  others,'  4  more  than  others ' ;  praeter  Jiaec  =  praeter-ed, 
4  besides  these  things,'  4  moreover ' ;  praeter  me,  4  except  me ' ;  praeter  spem, 
4  contrary  to  expectation.' 

Prope,  propter,  NEAR,  NEAR  BY.  Prope,  NEAR;  propter  =prope- 
ter,  a  strengthened  form  ofprope,6  VERY  NEAR,  ALONGSIDE  OF,  also  IN  VIEW  OF, 
ON  ACCOUNT  OF  i  prope  Twstes,  4  near  the  enemy ' ;  prope  metum,  4  near  to  fear,' 
4  almost  fearful ' ;  propter  mare,  4  near  the  sea ' ;  propter  timorem,  4  on  account 
of  fear' ;  propter  se,  4  on  his  own  account,'  4  on  their  own  account.' 

NOTE  1.— Prope,  as  an  adverb,  is  sometimes  combined  with  d,  ad,  or  ad:  prope 
d  Sicilid, '  near  Sicily,1  '  not  far  from  Sicily ' ;  prope  ad  portds, '  near  to  the  gates.1 

NOTE  2.— Like  prope,  the  derivatives  propius  and  proxime,  and  sometimes  even 
propior  and  prdximus,  admit  the  Accusative : 7 

Propius  periculum,  nearer  to  danger.  Liv.    Proxime  deos,  very  near  to  the  gods. 

1  Formed  from  in  by  the  ending  ter,  like  prae-ter  from  prae  (434, 1.),  prop-ter 
from  prope  (433, 1.),  and  sub-ter  from  sub  (435,  L). 

2  Often  equivalent  to  in  meo  animo,  '  in  my  mind.1 

3  Sometimes,  in  Ms  country,  or  in  their  country. 

4  In  origin  kindred  to  the  Greek  irapd. 

5  Formed  from  prae  (434, 1.),  like  in-ter  from  in\  see  inter,  with  foot-note. 

6  See  inter,  with  foot-note. 

f  Perhaps  by  a  construction  according  to  sense,  following  the  analogy  ofprope,  though 
in  most  cases  a  preposition  may  readily  be  supplied. 


CASES   WITH  PREPOSITIONS.  235 

Cic.  Propior  montem,  nearer  to  the  mountain.  Sail.  Proximus  mare,  nearest  to  the 
sea.  Caes. 

Secundum,1  FOLLOWING,  NEXT  AFTER,  NEXT  BEHIND,  ALONGSIDE  OF,  CON- 
FORMING TO,  ACCORDING  TO,  IN  FAVOR  OF  :  secundum  dram,  *  behind  the  altar' ; 
secundum  deos,  l  next  after  the  gods '  ;  secundum  ludos,  4  after  the  games ' ; 
secundum  Jlumen,  '  along  the  river ' ;  secundum  ndturam,  '  according  to  na- 
ture,' '  following  nature ' ;  secundum  causam  nostram,  '  in  favor  of  our  cause.' 2 

Supra/,3   ON   THE   TOP,  ABOVE,   BEFORE,  TOO    HIGH  FOR  ;    Opposed  to   Infrd, 

BELOW  :  supra  lunam,  '  above  the  moon ' ;  supra  hanc  memoriam,  l  before 
our  time ' ; 4  supra  hominem,  *  too  high  for  a  man.' 

Trans,  ACROSS,  ON  THE  OTHER  SIDE,  opposed  to  cis,  ON  THIS  SIDE  :  trans 
R?Lenum,  *  across  the  Rhine  ' ;  trans  Alpes,  k  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps.' 

Ultra,  BEYOND,  ACROSS,    ON  THE   OTHER   SIDE,   MORE   THAN,    LONGER  THAN, 

AFTER,  opposed  to  citrd,  ON  THIS  SIDE  :  ultra  eum  locum, '  beyond  that  place ' ; 
ultra  eum,  *  beyond  him' ;  ultra  plgnus,  '  more  than  a  pledge ' ;  ultrdfidem, 
4  beyond  belief,'  '  incredible ' ;  ultra  puerlles  annos,  l  after  (beyond)  the  years 
of  boyhood.' 

434.  The  ABLATIVE  is  used  with — 

A  or  ab  (abs),  absque,  coram,  cum,          de, 

e  or  ex,  prae,  pro,  sine,          tenus. 

Ab  urbe,  from  the  city.  Caes.  Coram  conventu,  in  tlie  presence  of  the 
assembly.  Nep.  Cum  Antiocho,  with  Antiochus.  Cic.  De  foro,  from  the 
forum.  Cic.  Ex  Asia,  out  of  Asia.  Nep.  Sine  corde,  without  a  heart.  Cic. 

NOTE  I. — Many  verbs  compounded  with  ab,  de,  ex,  or  super  admit  the  Ablative 
dependent  upon  the  preposition,  but  the  preposition  is  often  repeated,5  or  some  other 
preposition  of  kindred  meaning  is  used : 

Ablre  magistrate,  to  retire  from  office.  Tac.  Pugna  excedunt,  they  retire  from  the 
battle.  Caes.  De  vita  decedere,  to  depart  from  life.  Cic.  Decedere  ex  Asia,  to  depart 
out  of  Asia.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— A  and  e  are  used  only  before  consonants,  db  and  ex  before  either  vowels  or 
consonants.  Abs  is  antiquated,  except  before  te. 

NOTE  3.— For  cum  appended  to  the  Ablative  of  a  personal  pronoun  or  of  a  relative, 
see  184,  6,  and  187,  2. 

NOTE  4.— Tenus  follows  its  case.  In  its  origin  it  is  the  Accusative  of  a  noun,6  and 
as  such  it  often  takes  the  Genitive : 

Collo  tenus,  up  to  the  necJc.  Ov.    Lumborum  tenus,  as  far  as  the  loins.  Cic. 

1  Properly  the  neuter  of  secundus,  *  following,' '  second ' ;  but  secundus  is  a  gerund- 
ive from  sequor,  formed  like  dlcundus  from  dlco  (239).    For  the  change  of  qu  to  c 
before  u  in  sec-undus  for  sequ-undus,  see  36,  foot-note. 

2  Like  the  adjective  secundus  in  ventus  secundus, '  a  favoring  wind'— one  that  follows 
as  on  our  course ;  flumine  secundo,  'with  a  favoring  current'  (i.  e.,  down  the  stream). 

3  Supra  =  supera  parte, '  on  the  top.' 

4  Literally,  before  tfiis  memory.    For  hie  meaning  my  or  our,  see  450,  4,  note  1. 

5  Though  in  such  cases  the  first  element  of  the  compound  is  not  strictly  a  preposi- 
tion, but  an  adverb  (344,  with  foot-note).    Thus,  in  de  vttd  decedere,  de  in  the  verb 
retains  its  adverbial  force,  so  that,  strictly  speaking,  the  preposition  is  used  only  once. 

*  From  the  root  tan,  ten,  seen  in  ten-do,  ten-eo,  and  in  the  Greek  T«J/-W. 


236  CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 

NOTE  5.— For  the  Ablative  with  or  without  de,  as  used  with  facid,  fid,  and  sum,  see 
415,  III.,  note. 

I.  The  following  uses  of  prepositions  with  the  Ablative  deserve  notice : 
A,  ab,1  abs,  FROM,  BY,  IN,  ON,  ON  THE  SIDE  OF.  1.  Of  Place  ;  FROM,  ON, 
ON  THE  SIDE  OF:  d  Gallid,  4  from  Gaul7  ;  ab  ortu,  'from  the  east' ;  a/route, 
4 in  front7  (lit.,  from  the  front) ;  d  tergo,  4  in  the  rear' ;  ab  Sequanls,  4  on  the 
side  toward  the  Sequani.7  2.  Of  Time  ;  FROM,  AFTER  :  ab  hord  tertid,  '  frcm 
the  third  hour ' ;  d  puero,  *  from  boyhood ' ;  ab  cohortdtione,  '  after  exhort- 
ing.7 3.  In  other  relations  ;  FROM,  BY,  IN,  AGAINST  :  d  poend  liber,  4  free  from 
punishment 7 ;  missus  ab  Syrdcusls,  '  sent  by  the  Syracusans 7 ;  ab  equitdtu 
firmus,  4  strong  in  (lit. ,  from)  cavalry7 ;  ab  animo  aeger,  4  diseased  in  mind ' ; 
ab  els  defendere,  4  to  defend  against  (from)  them 7 ;  esse  ab  aliquo,  *  to  be  on 
one's  side 7 ;  d  nobls,  *  in  our  interest 7 ;  servus  dpedibus,  4  a  footman.7 
NOTE.— Absque,  rare  in  classical  prose,  is  found  chiefly  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

Cum,2  WITH,  in  most  of  its  English  meanings :  cum  patre  habitdre,  4  to 
live  with  one's  father ' ;  Caesar  cum  qulnque  legionibus, '  Caesar  with  five 
legions ' ;  consul  cum  summo  imperio,  4  the  consul  with  supreme  command ' ; 
servus  cum  telo, { a  slave  with  a  weapon,'  4  an  armed  slave ' ;  cum  primd  luce, 
4  with  the  early  dawn,*  *  at  the  early  dawn ' ;  cdnsentlre  cum  aliquo,  4  to  agree 
with  any  one ' ;  cum  Caesar e  agere,  4  to  treat  with  Caesar ' ;  cum  aliquo  dimi- 
cdre,  l  to  contend  with  any  one 7 ;  multis  cum  lacrimls,  4  with  many  tears 7 ; 
cum  virtute,  4  virtuously 7 ;  cum  eo  ut,  or  cum  eo  quod,  4  with  this  condition 
that,'  4  on  condition  that.'  See  also  419,  III. 

De,  DOWN  FROM,  FROM,  OF.  1.  Of  Place  /  DOWN  FROM,  FROM  :  de  caelo, 
4  down  from  heaven ' ;  de  ford,  4  from  the  forum ' ;  de  mdjdribus  audire,  4  to 
hear  from  one's  elders.'  2.  Of  Time;  FROM,  our  OF,  DURING,  IN,  AT,  AFTER  : 
depr audio, 4  from  breakfast ' ;  de  die, 4  by  day,7  4  in  the  course  of  the  day 7 ;  de 
tertid  vigilid,  4  during  the  third  watch7 ;  de  media  node,  4  at  about  midnight.7 
3.  In  other  relations;  FROM,  OF,  FOR,  ON,  CONCERNING,  ACCORDING  TO:  de, 
summo  genere,  4of  the  highest  rank7 ;  factum  de  marmore  signum,  4a  bust 
made  of  marble 7 ;  homo  de  plebe,  4  a  man  of  plebeian  rank,7  '  a  plebeian 7  ; 
triumphus  de  G-allid,  4  a  triumph  over  (concerning}  Gaul 7 ;  gravi  de  causa, 
4  for  a  grave  reason 7 ;  de  more  vetustd,  4  according  to  ancient  custom 7 ;  de  in- 
dustrid,  4  on  purpose7 ;  de  integro,  4  anew.7  See  also  415,  III.,  note  2. 

E,  ex,3  our  OF,  FROM.  1.  Of  Place  ;  our  OF,  FROM,  IN,  ON  :  ex  urbe,  4  from 
the  city,'  *  out  of  the  city ' ;  ex  equopugndre,  4  to  fight  on  horseback 7 ;  ex  vin~ 
cuUs,  4in  chains7  (lit.,  out  of  or  from  chains);  ex  itinere,  'on  the  march.' 
2.  Of  Time  ;  FROM,  DIRECTLY  AFTER,  SINCE  :  ex  eo  tempore,  4  from  that  time 7  ,* 
ex  tempore  dicere,  4  to  speak  extemporaneously 7 ;  diem  ex  die,  4  from  day  to 
day.7  3.  In  other  relations;  FROM,  OUT  OF,  OF,  ACCORDING  TO,  ON  ACCOUNT  OF, 
THROUGH  :  ex  vulneribus  perlre,  4  to  perish  of  (because  of )  wounds 7 ;  units  3 
filife,  l  one  of  the  sons 7 ;  ex  commutdtione,  4  on  account  of  the  change 7 ;  e\ 
cowuetudine,  l  according  to  custom 7  ;  e  vestigio,  4  on  the  spot 7 ;  ex  parte 
mdgnd,  4  in  great  part 7 ;  ex  improvlso,  4  unexpectedly.7 

1  Greek  airo.       a  Compare  Greek  £ vv,  <riv,  icith.       3  Compare  Greek  e£ ,  out  of- 


CASES   WITH  PREPOSITIONS.  237 

Prae,  BEFORE,  IN  COMPARISON  WITH,  IN  CONSEQUENCE  OF,  BECAUSE  or:1 
prae  manu  esse,  l  to  be  at  hand ' ;  prae  manu  Tiabere,  '  to  have  at  hand ' ;  prae 
seferre,  Ho  show,  display,  exhibit' ;  prae  nobis  bedtus,  'happy  in  comparison 
with  us ' ;  non  prae  lacrimls l  posse,  '  not  to  be  able  because  of  tears.' 

PTC,    BEFORE ;    IN   BEHALF   OF,   IN   DEFENCE    OF,   FOR ;    INSTEAD    OF,   AS  ;   IN 

RETURN  FOR,  FOR  ;  ACCORDING  TO,  IN  PROPORTION  TO  i  pro  castris,  *  before  the 
camp ' ;  pro  libertdte,  '  in  defence  of  liberty ' ;  pro  patrid,  '  for  the  country ' ; 
pro  cdnsule  =  proconsul,  *a  proconsul'  (one  acting  for  a  consul);  pro  certo 
habere,  '  to  regard  as  certain ' ;  pro  eo,  quod,- ''for  the  reason  that,'  4  because ' ; 
pro  tud  prudentid,  c  in  accordance  with  your  prudence '  ;  pro  imperid,  '  im- 
periously '  ;  pro  se  quisque,  '  each  according  to  his  ability.' 

435.  The  ACCUSATIVE  or  ABLATIVE  is  used  with. — 
In,        sub,         subter,         super: 

In  Asiam  profugit,  Tie  fled  into  Asia.  Cic.  Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Han- 
nibal was  in  Italy.  Nep.  Sub  montem,  toward  the  mountain.  Caes.  Sub 
nionte,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  Liv.  Subter  togam,  under  the  toga.  Liv. 
Subter  testudine,  under  a  tortoise  or  shed.  Verg.  Super  Numidiarn,  beyond 
Numidia.  Sail.  Hac  super  re  scrlbam,  I  shall  write  on  this  subject.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — In  and  sub  take  the  Accusative  after  verbs  implying  motion,  the  Ablative 
after  those  implying  rest;  see  examples. 

NOTE  2. — Subter  and  super  generally  take  the  Accusative;  bat  super,  when  it  means 
concerning,  of,  on  (of  a  subject  of  discourse),  takes  the  Ablative ;  see  examples. 

I.  The  following  uses  of  in,  sub,  subter,  and  super  deserve  notice : 

In,  with  the  Accusative,  INTO,  TO,  TOWARD,  TILL.  1.  Of  Place/  INTO,  TO, 
TOWARD,  AGAINST,  IN  :  Ire  in  urbem,  4  to  go  into  the  city ' ;  in  Persds,  '  into 
the  country  of  the  Persians ' ;  in  dram,  *  to  the  altar ' ;  unum  in  2ocum  con- 
venire,  '  to  meet  in  one  place '  (380,  with  note).  2.  Of  Time  /  INTO,  TO,  FOR, 
TILL  :  in  noctem,  l  into  the  night ' ;  in  multam  noctem,  '  until  late  at  night ' ; 
in  diem,  *  into  the  day,'  also  *  for  the  day ' ;  in  dies,  4  from  day  to  day,'  '  daily ' ; 
inmtdre  inposterum  diem,  '  to  invite  for  the  following  day.'  3.  In  oilier  rela- 
tions ;  INTO,  AGAINST,  TOWARD,  ON,  FOR,  AS,  IN  :  divlsa  in  paries  tres,  4  divided 
into  three  parts ' ;  in  hostem, 4  against  the  enemy ' ;  in  id  certdmen,  '  for  this 
contest ' ;  in  memoriam  patris,  4  hi  memory  of  his  father ' ;  in  spem  pads,  '  in 
the  hope  of  peace ' ;  in  rem  esse,  l  to  be  useful,'  '  to  be  to  the  purpose.' 

In,  with  the  Ablative,  IN,  ON,  AT.  1.  Of  Place;  IN,  AT,  WITHIN,  AMONG, 
UPON  :  in  urbe,  '  in  the  city ' ;  in  Persis,  4  among  the  Persians ' ;  sapientis- 
simus  in  septem,  *  the  wisest  among  or  of  the  seven.'  2.  Of  Time ;  IN,  AT, 
DURING,  IN  THE  COURSE  OF  :  in  tail  tempore,  *  at  such  a  time ' ;  in  tempore,  *  in 
time.'  3.  In  other  relations ;  IN,  ON,  UPON,  IN  THE  CASE  OF  :  esse  in  arm/is,  l  to 
be  in  arms ' ;  in  summo  timore,  *  in  the  greatest  fear ' ;  in  hoc  homine,  l  in  the 
case  of  this  man.' 

Sub,  with  the  Accusative,  UNDER,  BENEATH,  TOWARD,  UP  TO,  ABOUT,  DIRECT- 

1  This  causal  meaning  is  developed  from  the  local.  The  noun  in  the  Ablative  is 
thought  of  as  an  obstacle  or  hindrance :  non  prae  lacrimls  posse,  *  not  to  be  able  be- 
fore, in  the  presence  of,  because  (/such  a  hindrance  as  tears,1 


238  CASES   WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 

LY  AFTER  i  sub  jugum  mittere,  *  to  send  under  the  yoke  ' ;  sub  nostram  aciem, 
'  toward  our  line  * ;  sub  astra,  4  up  to  the  stars ' ;  sub  vesperum,  '  toward  even- 
ing ' ;  sub  eds  litterds,  l  directly  after  that  letter ' ;  sub  imperium  reddctus, 
1  brought  under  one's  sway.' 

Sub,  with  the  Ablative,  UNDER,  AT,  AT  THE  FOOT  OF,  IN,  ABOUT:  sub  terra, 
4  under  the  earth ' ;  sub  pellibus,  l  in  tents ' ;  *  sub  bruma,  '  at  the  time  of  the 
winter  solstice ' ;  sub  luce,  '  at  dawn ' ;  sub  lidc  verbo,  '  under  this  word ' ;  sub 
iudice,  '  in  the  hands  of  the  judge '  (i.  e.,  not  yet  decided). 

NOTE.— Subter,  a  strengthened  form  2  of  sub,  meaning  UNDER,  generally  takes  the 
Accusative,  though  it  admits  the  Ablative  in  poetry:  subter  mare,  'under  the  sea'; 
subter  togam,  'under  the  toga1 ;  subter  densa  testudine, ' under  a  compact  testudo.' 

Super,  with  the  Accusative,  OVER,  UPON,  ABOVE  :  sedens  super  arma,  *  sit- 
ting upon  the  arms ' ;  super  Numidiam,  '  beyond  Numidia ' ;  super  sexdgintd 
mllia,  '  upward  of  sixty  thousand ' ;  super  naturam,  4  supernatural ' ;  super 
omnia,  '  above  all.' 

Super,  with  the  Ablative,  UPON,  AT,  DURING,  CONCERNING,  OF,  ON  :  strdto 
super  ostro,  *  upon  purple  couches '  (lit.,  upon  the  spread, purple) ;  node  super 
media,  'at  midnight';  hdc  super  re  scribere,  l  to  write  upon  this  subject'; 
multa  super  Priamo  rogitdns,  4  asking  many  questions  about  Priam.' 

NOTE. — The  Ablative  is  rare  with  super,  except  when  it  means  concerning,  about,  on 
(of  the  subject  of  discourse).  It  is  then  the  regular  construction. 

436.  Prepositions  were  originally  adverbs  (307,  note  1),  and  many  of 
the  words  generally  classed  as  prepositions  are  often  used  as  adverbs  3  in 
classical  authors : 

Ad  mllibus  quattuor,  about  four  thousand.  Caes.  Omnia  contra  circaque, 
all  things  opposite  and  around.  Liv.  Prope  a  Sicilia,  not  far  from  Sicily. 
Cic.  Juxta  positus,  placed  near  by.  Nep.  Supra,  infra  esse,  to  be  above,  be- 
low. Cic.  Nee  citra  nee  ultra,  neither  on  this  side  nor  on  that  side.  Ov. 

437.  Conversely,  several  words  generally  classed  as  adverbs  are  some- 
times used  as  prepositions.     Such  are — 

1.  With  the  ACCUSATIVE,  propius,  proxime,  vridie,  postridie,  usque,  de- 
super  : 

Propius  periculurn,  nearer  to  danger,  Liv.  Prldie  Idus,  the  day  before 
the  Ides.  Cic.  Usque  pedes,  even  to  the  feet.  Curt. 

2.  With  the  ABLATIVE,  intus,  palam,  procul,  simul  (poetic) : 

Tall  intus  templo,  within  such  a  temple.  Verg.  Palam  populo,  in  the 
presence  of  the  people.  Liv.  Procul  castrls,  at  a  distance  from  the  camp.  Tac. 
Simul  his,  with  these.  Hor. 

3.  With  the  ACCUSATIVE  or  ABLATIVE,  clam,  insuper : 

Clam  patrem,  without  the  father- '«  knowledge.  Plaut.  Clam  vobls,  without 
your  knowledge.  Caes. 

1  That  is,  in  camp  (lit.,  under  skins). 

2  Formed  from  sub,  like  in-ter  from  in;  see  433,  L,  inter,  foot-note. 

3  They  are,  in  fact,  sometimes  adverbs  and  sometimes  prepositions. 


AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES.  239 

CHAPTEK    III. 
SYNTAX   OF  ADJECTIVES. 


RULE  XXXIV.—  Agreement  of  Adjectives. 

438.  An  adjective  agrees  with  its  noun  in  GENDER, 
NUMBER,  and  CASE: 

Fortuna  caeca  est,  fortune  is  blind.  Cic.  Verae  amicitiae,  true  friend- 
ships. Cic.  Magister  optimus,  the  .best  teacher.  Cic.  Qua  in  re  prlvatas 
injurias  ultus  est,  in  which  thing  he  avenged  private  wrongs.  Caes.  Sol 
oriens  diem  conficit,  the  sun  rising  makes  the  day.  Cic. 

1.  Adjective  Pronouns  and  Participles  are  ADJECTIVES  in  construction,  and 
accordingly  conform  to  this  rule,  as  in  qua  in  re,  sol  oriens. 

2.  When  an  adjective  unites  with  the  verb  (generally  sum}  to  form  the 
predicate,  as  in  caeca  est,  '  is  blind,'  it  is  called  a  PEEDICATE  ADJECTIVE  (36O, 
note  1);  but  when  it  simply  qualifies  a  noun,  as  in  verae  amicitiae,  'true 
friendships,'  it  is  called  an  ATTRIBUTIVE  ADJECTIVE. 

3.  AGREEMENT  WITH  CLAUSE,  ETC.— An  adjective  may  agree  with  any  word 
or  words  used  substantively,  as  &  pronoun,  clause,  infinitive,  etc. : 

Quis  clarior,  who  is  more  illustrious  f  Cic.  Certum  est  Iiber6s  amarl,  it 
is  certain  that  children  are  loved.  Quint,  See  42,  note. 

NOTE. — An  adjective  agreeing  with  a  clause  is  sometimes  plural,  as  in  Greek : 

Ut  Aeneas  jactetur  nota  tibi,  how  Aeneas  is  tossed  about  is  known  to  you.  Yerg. 

4.  A  NEUTER  ADJECTIVE  used  as  a  substantive  sometimes  supplies  the  place 
of  a  Predicate  Adjective  : * 

Mors  est  extremum,  death  is  the  last  thing.  Cic.  Triste  lupus  stabulls, 
a  wolf  is  a  sad  thing  for  the  flocks.  Verg. 

5.  A  NEUTER  ADJECTIVE  WITH  A  GENITIVE  is  often  used  instead  of  an  ad- 
jective with  its  noun,  especially  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative : 

Multum  operae,  much  service*  Cic.  Id  temporis,  that  time."2  Cic.  Vana 
rerum,  vain  things*  Hor.  Opaca  viarurn,  dark  streets.  Verg.  Strata  viarum, 
paved  streets.  Verg.  See  also  397,  3,  note  4. 

6.  SYNEsis.3 — Sometimes  the  adjective  or  participle  conforms  to  the  real 
meaning  of  its  noun,  without  regard  to  grammatical  gender  or  number: 

Pars  certare  parat!,4  a  part  (some),  prepared  to  contend.  Verg.  Inspe- 
rantl 4  iiobls,  to  us  (me)  not  expecting  it.  Catul.  Demosthenes  cum  ceterls 
erant  expuls!,4  Demosthenes  with  the  others  had  been  banished.  Nep. 

1  As  in  Greek :  ov/c  aya6bv  TroXvKoipavi^  the  rule  of  the  many  is  not  a  good  thing. 

2  Multum  operae  =  multa  opera  or  multam  operam;  id  temporis  — id  tempus; 
vdna  rerum  —  vdnae  res  or  Donas  res. 

3  A  construction  according  to  sense;  see  636,  IV.,  4. 

4  Pardtl  is  plural,  to  conform  to  the  meaning  of  pars, '  part,' '  some,'  plural  in  sense ; 


240  AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

NOTE.— In  the  Ablative  Absolute  (431)  absente  and  praesente  occur  in  early  Latin 
with  a  plural  noun  or  pronoun : l 

Praesente l  ibus  (els),2  in  their  presence  (lit.,  they  "being  present).  Plaut.  Prae- 
'sente  testibus,  in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  Plaut. 

7.  AGREEMENT  WITH  ONE  NOUN  FOR  ANOTHER. — When  a  noun  governs  an- 
other in  the  Genitive,  an  adjective  belonging  in  sense  to  one  of  the  two  nouns, 
sometimes  agrees  with  the  other : 

Majora  (for  majdrum}  rerum  initia,.  the  beginnings  of  greater  tldngs.  Liv. 
Cursus  just!  (Justus}  amnis,  the  regular  course  of  the  river.  Liv. 

NOTE  1. — In  the  passive  forms  of  verbs  the  participle  sometimes  agrees  with  a 
predicate  noun  or  with  an  appositive;  see  462. 

NOTE  2. — An  adjective  or  participle  predicated  of  an  Accusative  is  sometimes  attracted 
into  the  Nominative  to  agree  with  the  subject : 

Ostendit  se  dextra  (for  dextram),  she  shows  herself  favorable.  Verg. 

439.  An  adjective  or  participle,  belonging  to  TWO  OB  MORE 
NOUNS,  may  agree  with  them  all  conjointly,  or  may  agree  with  we 
and  be  understood  with  the  others : 

Castor  et  Pollux  visl  sunt,  Castor  and  Pollux  were  seen.  Cic.  Dubitare 
visus  est  Sulpicius  et  Cotta,  Sulpicius  and  Cotta  seemed  to  doubt.  Cic.  Temeri- 
tas  ignoratioque  vitiosa  est,  rashness  and  ignorance  are  bad.  Cic. 

1.  The  ATTRIBUTIVE  ADJECTIVE  generally  agrees  with  the  nearest  noun: 
Agii  omnes  et  maria,  all  lands  and  seas.  Cic.    Cuncta  maria  terraeque, 

all  seas  and  lands.   Sail. 

2.  A  plural  adjective  or  participle,  agreeing  with  two  or  more  NOUNS  OP 
DIFFERENT  GENDERS,  is  generally  masculine  when  the  nouns  denote  persons 
or  sentient  beings,  and  in  other  cases  generally  neuter : 

Pater  et  mater  mortul  sunt,  father  and  mother  are  dead.  Ter.  Honores, 
vlctoriae  fortuita  sunt,  honors  and  victories  are  accidental  things.  Cic.  Labor 
voluptasque  inter  se  sunt  juncta,  labor  and  pleasure  are  joined  together.  Liv. 

NOTE.— When  nouns  denoting  sentient  beings  are  combined  with  those  denoting 
things,  the  plural  adjective  or  participle  in  agreement  with  them  sometimes  takes  the 
gender  of  the  former  and  sometimes  of  the  latter,  and  sometimes  is  neuter  irrespective 
of  the  gender  of  the  nouns : 

Bex  regiaque  clussis  profecti  sunt,  the  king  and  the  royal  fleet  set  out.  Liv.  Begem 
regnumque  sua  futura  sciunt,  they  know  that  the  king  and  the  kingdom  will  be  theirs. 
Liv.  Inimica  3  inter  se  sunt  Hbera  clvitas  et  rex,  a  free  state  and  a  king  are  hostile  to 
each  other.  Liv. 

3.  With  nouns  denoting  inanimate  objects,  the  adjective  or  participle  is 
often  neuter,  irrespective  of  the  gender  of  the  nouns : 

Labor  et  dolor  sunt  flnitima,  labor  and  pain  are  kindred  (things).  Cic. 

insperantl  is  singular,  because  nobls  is  here  applied  to  one  person,  the  speaker  (446, 
note  2) ;  expulsi  is  plural,  because  Demosthenes  cum  ceterls  means  Demosthenes  AND 
the  others. 

1  In  this  construction  absente  and  praesente  appear  to  be  treated  as  adverbs. 

2  See  p.  73,  foot-note  2. 

3  Perhaps  best  explained  substantively— things  hostile  ;  see  438,  4. 


USE  OF  ADJECTIVES.  241 

Nox  atque  praeda  hostls  remorata  sunt,  night  and  plunder  detained  the  enemy. 

Sail. 

4.  Two  OB  MORE  ADJECTIVES  in  the  singular  may  belong  to  a  plural  noun: 
Prlma  et  vlcesima  legiones,  the  first  and  the  twentieth  legions.  Tac. 

NOTE.— In  the  same  way  two  or  more  praenomina J  in  the  singular  may  be  com- 
bined with  a  family  name  in  the  plural : 

Gnaeus  et  Publius  Sclpiones,  Gnaeus  and  Publius  Scipio.  Cic.  Publius  et  Servius 
Sullae,  PubUus  and  Servius  Sulla.  Sail. 

USE  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

440.  The  adjective  in  Latin  corresponds  in  its  general  use  to 
the  adjective  in  English. 

1.  In  Latin,  as  in  English,  an  adjective  may  qualify  the  complex  idea 
formed  by  a  noun  and  another  adjective : 

Duae  potentissimae  gentes,  two  very  powerful  races.  Liv.  Magnum  aes 
alienum,  a  large  debt.  Cic.  Naves  longas  triginta  veteres,  thirty  old  vessels 
of  war.  Liv.2 

NOTE.-— In  general  no  connective  is  used  when  adjectives  are  combined,  as  in  duae 
potentissimae  gentes,  etc.;  but  if  the  first  adjective  is  multl  or  pluriml,  the  connective 
is  usually  inserted: 

Multae  et  magnae  cogitationes,  many  great  thoughts.  Cic.  Multa  et  praeclara  fa- 
cinora,  many  illustrious  deeds.  Sail. 

2.  PROLEPSIS  or  ANTICIPATION.— An  adjective  is  sometimes  applied  to  a 
noun  to  denote  the  result  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb : 

Submersas3  obrue  puppes,  overwhelm  and  sink  the  ships  (lit.,  overwhelm 
the  sunken  ships').  Verg.  Scuta  latentia3  condunt,  they  conceal  their  hidden 
shields.  Verg. 

NOTE  1.— Certain  adjectives  often  designate  a  PARTICULAR  PART  of  an  object:  prlma 
nox,  the  first  part  of  the  night ;  media  aestdte,  in  the  middle  of  summer;  summus  mons, 
the  top  (highest  part)  of  the  mountain. 

NOTE  2.—- The  adjectives  thus  used  are  primus,  medius,  ultimus,  extremus,  postre- . 
mus,  intimus,  summus,  infimus,  Imus,  supremus,  rBliquus,  cetera,  etc. 

NOTE  3.— In  the  poets,  in  Livy,  and  in  late  prose  writers,  the  neuter  of  these  adjec- 
tives with  a  Genitive  sometimes  occurs : 

Libyae  extrema,  the  frontiers  of  Libya.  Verg.  Ad  ultimum  inopiae  (for  ad  ultimam 
inopiam),  to  extreme  destitution.  Liv. 

NOTE  4.— Adjectives  are  often  combined  with  RES  :  res  adversae,  adversity ;  res  se- 
cundae,  prosperity;  res  novae,  revolution ;  respublica,  republic. 

1  For  Eoman  names,  see  649. 

2  Here  duae  qualifies  not  simply  gentes.  but  potentissimae  gentes;  magnum  quali- 
fies aes  alienum ,  'debt'  (lit.,  money  belonging  to  another)',  veteres  qualifies  naves 
longas,  'vessels  of  war1  (lit.,  'long  vessels'),  while  triginta  qualifies  the  still  more  com- 
plex expression,  naves  longas  veteres. 

3  Observe  that  submersds  gives  the  result  of  the  action  denoted  by  obrue,  and  is  not 
applicable  to  puppes  until  that  action  is  performed ;  latentia  likewise  gives  the  result 
of  condunt. 


24:2  USE  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

441.  Adjectives  and  participles  are  often  used  SUBSTANTIVELY  i1 

Bonl,  the  good ;  mortales,  mortals ;  docti,  the  learned  ;  sapient'es,  the  wise ; 
mulM,  many  persons;  multa,  many  things;  praefectus,  a  prefect;2  natus,  a  son.2 

1.  In  the  plural,  masculine  adjectives  and  participles  often  designate  PERSONS,  and 
neuter  adjectives  THINGS:  fortes,  the  brave;   dwites,  the  rich;  pauperes,  the  poor; 
muttl,  many;  paucl,  few;  omnes,  all;  mei,  my  friends;  discentes,  learners;  spectantes, 
spectators ;  futura,  future  events;  utilia,  useful  things;  mea,  nostra,  my  things,  our 
things ;  omnia,  all  things ;  haec,  ilia,  these  things,  those  things.  , 

2.  In  the  singular,  adjectives  and  participles  are  occasionally  used  SUBSTANTIVEL^ 
especially  in  the  Genitive,  or  in  the  Accusative  or  Ablative  with  a  preposition :  doctus^ 
a  learned  man;  adulescens,  a  young  man;  verum,  a  true  thing,  the  truth;  falsum,  a 
falsehood;  nihil  sinceri,  nothing  of  sincerity,  nothing  sincere;  -nihil  humdnl,  nothing 
human;  nihil rSliqul,  nothing  left; 3  aliquid  novi,  something  new;  dprlmo,  from  the 
beginning;  ad  extremum,  to  the  end;  ad  summum,  to  the  highest  point;  de  Integra, 
afresh;  de  improvlso,  unexpectedly;  ex  aequo,  in  h'ke  manner;  in  praesentl,  at  pres- 
ent; infuturum,  for  the  future;  pro  certo,  as  certain.4 

NOTE  1. — For  the  neuter  participle  with  opus  and  ii&us,  see  414,  IV.,  note  3. 
NOTE  2.— For  the  use  of  adjectives  instead  of  nouns  in  the  Genitive,  see  395,  note  2. 

3.  A  few  substantives  are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives,  especially  verbal  nouns  in 
tor  and  trlx : 5  victor  exercitus,  a  victorious  army ;  homo  gladiator,  a  gladiator,  a  gladi- 
atorial man;  mctrices  Athenae,  victorious  (conquering)  Athens;  populus  late  rex,  a 
people  of  extensive  sway.8 

442.  EQUIVALENT  TO  A  CLAUSE. — Adjectives,  like  nouns  in  ap- 
position, are  sometimes  equivalent  to  clauses  : 

Nemo  saltat  sobrius,  no  one  dances  when  Tie  is  sober,  or  when  sober.   Cic. 

Hortensium  vlvum  amavi,  /  loved  Hortensius,  while  he  was  alive.   Cic.    Homo 

nunquam  sobrius,  a  man  who  is  never  sober.   Cic. 

NOTE.— Prior,  primus,  ultimus,  postremus,  are  often  best  rendered  by  a  relative  clause : 
Primus  morem  solvit,  Tie  was  the  first  who  broke  the  custom*"1  Liv. 

443.  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS. — Adjectives  are  sometimes 
used  where  our  idiom  employs  adverbs : 

Socrates  venenum  laetus  hausit,  Socrates  CHEERFULLY  drank  ihe  poison. 
Sen.  Senatus  frequem  convenit,  the  senate  assembled  IN  GBEAT  NUMBERS.  Cic. 
Koscius  erat  Komae  frequens,  Rostius  was  frequently  at  Rome.  Cic. 

1  That  is,  words  which  were  originally  adjectives  or  participles  sometimes  become 
substantives;  indeed,  many  substantives  were  originally  adjectives;  see  323,  foot-note; 
324,  foot-note. 

2  Praefectus,  from  praeficio  (lit.,  one  appointed  over);  ndtus,  from  nascor  (lit., 
one  born). 

3  See  397, 1.    For  nihil  reliqui  facer e,  see  401,  note  4. 

4  Numerous  adverbial  expressions  are  thus  formed  by  combining  the  neuter  of  adjec- 
tives with  prepositions. 

5  That  is,  these  words  are  generally  substantives,  but  sometimes  adjectives. 

6  See  Verg.,  Aen.,  L,  21. 

7  With  the  adverb  prlmum  the  thought  would  be,  he  first  broke  the  custom  (i.  e., 
before  doing  anything  else).    Compare  the  corresponding  distinction  between  the  Greek 
adjective  Trpwros  and  the  adverb  irpurov. 


USE  OF  ADJECTIVES.  243 

NOTE  1.— The  adjectives  chiefly  thus  used  are— (1)  Those  expressive  of  joy,  knowl' 

edge,  and  their  opposites :  laetus,  libens,  invltus,  tristis,  sciens,  insolent,  prudens,  im- 

prudens,  etc.    (2)  Niillus,  solus,  totus,  units;  prior,  primus,  propior,  proximus,  etc. 

NOTE  2.— In  the  poets  a  few  adjectives  of  time  and  place  are  used  in  the  same  manner : 

Domesticus  otior,  I  idle  about  home.  Hor.    Vespertinus  pete  tectum,  at  evening 

seek  your  abode.  Hor. 

NOTE  3.— In  rare  instances  adverbs  seem  to  supply  the  place  of  adjectives : 
Omnia  recte  sunt,  all  things  are  RIGHT.  Cic.    Non  ignari  sumus  ante  malorum,1  we 
are  not  ignorant  of  PAST  misfortunes.  Verg.    Nunc  hominum J  mores,  the  character 
of  men  OP  THE  PRESENT  DAY.  Plaut. 

NOTE  4.— Numeral  adverbs  often  occur  with  titles  of  office: 2 

Flaminius,  consul  iterum,  Flaminius,  when  consul  for  the  second  time.  Cic. 

444.  A  COMPARISON  between  two  objects  requires  the  com- 
parative degree  ;  between  more  than  two,  the  superlative : 

Prior  horum,  the  former  of  these  (two).  Nep.  Gallorum  fortissinri,  the 
bravest  of  the  Gauls.  Caes. 

1.  The  comparative  sometimes  has  the  force  of  TOO,  UNUSUALLY,  SOME- 
WHAT, and  the  superlative,  the  force  of  VERY  :  doctior,  too  learned,  or  some- 
what learned ;  ddctissimus,  very  learned. 

NOTE. — Certain  superlatives  are  common  as  titles  of  honor :  cldrissimus,  nobilissi' 
mus,  and  simwms— especially  applicable  to  men  of  consular  or  senatorial  rank ;  fortissi- 
mus,  honestissimus,  illustrissimus,  and  splendidissimus—  especially  applicable  to  those 
of  the  equestrian  order. 

2.  COMPARATIVE  AFTER  QUAM.— When  an  object  is  said  to  possess  one 
quality  in  a  higher  degree  than  another,  the  two  adjectives  thus  used  either 
may  be  connected  by  magis  quam 3  or  may  both  be  put  in  the  comparative : 4 

Disertus  magis  quam  sapiens,  more  fluent  than  wise.9  Cic.  Praeclarum  magis 
quam  difficile,  more  noble  than  difficult,  or  noble  rather  than  difficult.  Cic.  Ditiores 
quam  fortiores,  more  wealthy  than  brave.*  Liv.  Clarior  quam  gratior,  more  illustri- 
ous than  pleasing.  Liv. 

NOTE  1.— In  a  similar  manner  two  adverbs  may  be  connected  by  magis  quam,  or 
may  both  be  put  in  the  comparative : 

Magis  audacter  quam  parate,  with  more  audacity  than  preparation.  Cic.  Bellum 
fortius  quam  felicius  gerere,  to  wage  war  with  more  valor  than  success.  Liv. 

NOTE  2.— The  form  with  magis,  both  in  adjectives  and  in  adverbs,  may  sometimes 
be  best  rendered  rather  than : 

Ars  magis  inagna  quam  difficilis,  an  art  extensive  rather  than  difficult.  Cic.  See 
also  the  second  example  under  2,  above. 

NOTE  3.— In  the  later  Latin  the  positive  sometimes  follows  quam,  even  when  the 
regular  comparative  precedes,  and  sometimes  toco  positives  are  used : 

Vehementius  quam  caute  appetere,  to  seek  more  eagerly  than  cautiously.  Tac. 
Claris  quam  vetustis,  illustrimis  rather  than  ancient.  Tac. 

NOTE  4.— For  the  use  of  comparatives  before  quam  pro,  see  417, 1,  note  5. 

1  Like  the  Greek  ruv  irpiv  KO.KUV  and  rStv  vvv  av9p<air<ov. 

2  The  want  of  a  present  participle  in  the  verb  sum  brings  these  adverbs  into  close 
connection  with  nouns. 

3  As  in  English,  more  fluent  than  wise.    This  is  the  usual  method  in  Cicero. 

4  As  in  Greek,  TrAetores  rj  /BeArtoi/e?,  more  numerous  than  good.    This  method,  com' 
mon  in  Livy,  is  rare  in  the  earlier  writers. 


AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS. 

3.  SxEENGTHENiNa  WORDS. — Comparatives  and  superlatives  are  often 
strengthened  by  a  preposition  with  its  case,  as  by  ante,  prae,  praeter,  supra 
(417, 1,  note  3).  Comparatives  are  also  often  strengthened  by  etiam,  even, 
still ;  multo,  much ;  and  superlatives  by  longe,  multo,  by  far,  much ;  xel,  even ; 
unus,  unus  omnium,  alone,  alone  of  all,  without  exception,  far,  by  far ;  quam, 
quam  or  quantus  with  the  verb  possum,  as  possible ;  tarn  quam  qul,  ut  qul, 
as  possible  (lit.,  as  he  who) : 

Majores  etiam  varietates,  even  greater  varieties.  Cic.  Multo  etiam  gravius  queri- 
tnr,  he  complains  even  mucli  more  "bitterly.  Caes.  Multo  maxima  pars,  by  far  the 
largest  part.  Cic.  Quam  saepissime,  as  often  as  possible.  Cic.  Unus  omnium  doctis- 
simus,  without  exception  the  most  learned  of  men.  Cic.  Res  mm  omnium  difficillima, 
a  thing  by  far  the  most  difficult  of  all.  Cic.  Quam  maximae  copiae,  forces  as  large 
as  possible.  Sail.  Quantam  maximam  potest  vastitatem  ostendit,Ae  exhibits  the  great- 
est possible  desolation  (litM  as  great  as  the  greatest  he  can).  Liv. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
SYNTAX  OF  PRONOUNS. 


RULE  XXXV.— Agreement  of  Pronouns. 

445.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  GENDER, 

NUMBER,  and  PERSON  I 

Animal  quod  sanguinem  habet,  an  animal  WHICH  has  blood.  Cic.  Ego, 
qul  te  confirms,  /  WHO  encourage  you.  Cic.  Vis  est  in  virtutibus,  ea& 
excita,  there  is  strength  in  virtues,  arouse  THEM.  Cic. 

NOTE. — The  antecedent  is  the  word  or  words  to  which  the  pronoun  refers,  and  whose 
place  it  supplies.  Thus,  in  the  examples  under  the  rule,  animal  is  the  antecedent  of 
quod;  ego^ofqui;  and  mrtutibus,  of  eas. 

1.  This  rule  applies  to  all  pronouns  when  used  as  nouns.    Pronouns  used 
as  adjectives  conform  to  the  rule  for  adjectives ;  see  438. 

2.  When  the  antecedent  is  a  demonstrative  in  agreement  with  a  personal 
pronoun,  the  relative  agrees  with  the  latter : 

Tu  es  is  qul  me  ornastl,  you  are  the  one  WHO  commended  me.   Cic. 

3.  When  a  relative,  or  other  pronoun,  refers  to  TWO  OB  MORE  ANTECEDENTS, 
it  generally  agrees  with  them  conjointly,  but  it  sometimes  agrees  with  the 
nearest : 

Pietas,  virtus,  fides,  qudrum1  Romae  templa  sunt,  piety ,  virtue,  and  faith, 
WHOSE  temples  are  at  Borne.  Cic.  Peccatum  ac  culpa,  quae,1  error  and  -fault, 
WHICH.  Cic. 

1  Qudnun  agrees  with  pietds^  virtus,  and  fides  conjointly,  and  is  accordingly  in  the 
plural;  but  quae  agrees  simply  with  culpa. 


AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS.         245 

NOTE  1.— With  antecedents  of  different  genders,  the  pronoun  conforms  in  gender  to 
the  rule  for  adjectives  (439,  2  and  3) : 

Pueri  mulieresque  qui,1  boys  and  women  WHO.  Caes.  Inconstantia  et  temeritas, 
quae 1  digna  non  sunt  deo,  inconstancy  and  raslvness  WHICH  are  not  worthy  of  a 
god.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— With  antecedents  si  different  persons,  the  pronoun  prefers  the  first  person 
to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third,  conforming  to  the  rule  for  verbs  (463, 1) : 

Ego  ac  tu  inter  nos  2  loquimur,  you  and  I  converse  together.  Tac.  Et  tu.  et  collogae 
tui,  qul 2  sperastis,  both  you  and  your  colleagues,  WHO  hoped.  Cic. 

4.  By  ATTRACTION,  a  pronoun  sometimes  agrees  with  a  PREDICATE  NOUN 
or  an  APPOSITIVE  instead  of  the  antecedent : 

Animal  quern  (for  quod)  vocamus  hominem,  the  animal  WHICH  we  call 
man.*  Cic.  Thebae,  quod  (quae)  caput  est,  Thebes,  WHICH  is  the  capital.  Liv. 
Ea  (id)  erat  confessio,  THAT  (i.  e.,  the  action  referred  to)  was  a  confession. 
Liv.  Flumen  Khenus,  qul,  the  river  Rhine,  WHICH.  Caes. 

5.  By  SYNESIS,  the  pronoun  is  sometimes  construed  according  to  the  Teal 
'meaning  of  the  antecedent,  without  regard  to  grammatical  form ;  and  some- 
times it  refers  to  the  class  of  objects  to  which  the  antecedent  belongs : 

Quia  fessum  mllitem  habebat,  his  quietem  dedit,  as  he  had  an,  exhausted 
soldiery ,  he  gave  THEM  (THESE)  a  rest.  Liv.  Equitatus,  qul  vlderunt,  the  cav- 
alry WHO  saw.  Caes.  De  alia  re,  quod  ad  me  attinet,  in  regard  to  another 
thing  WHICH  pertains  to  me.  Plaut.  Earum  rerum  utrumque,  EACH  of  these 
things.  Cic.  Democritum  omittamus ;  apud  istos  /  let  us  omit  Democritus ; 
with  SUCH  (i.  e.,  as  he).  Cic. 

6.  ANTECEDENT  OMITTED.— The  antecedent  of  the  relative  is  often  omitted 
when  it  is  indefinite,  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun,  or  is  implied  in  a  posses- 
sive pronoun,  or  in  an  adjective : 

Sunt  qul  censeant,  there  are  some  ivho  thinJc.  Cic.  Terra  reddit  quod  ac- 
cepit,  the  earth  returns  what  it  has  received.  Cic.  Vestra,  qul  cum  integri- 
tate  vlxistis,  hoc  interest,  this  interests  you  who  liave  lived  with  integrity.  Cic. 
Servllis  tumultus  quos,  the  revolt  of  the  slaves  ivliom.  Caes. 

7.  CLAUSE  AS  ANTECEDENT.— When  the  antecedent  is  a  sentence  or  clause, 
the  pronoun,  unless  attracted  (445,  4),  is  in  the  Neuter  Singular,  but  the 
relative  generally  adds  id  as  an  appositive  to  such  antecedent : 

Nos,  id  quod  debet,  patria  delectat,  our  country  delights  us,  as  it  ought 
(lit. ,  that  which  it  owes).  Cic.  Eegem,  quod  nunquam  antea  acciderat,  neca- 
verunt,  they  put  their  king  to  death,  which  had  never  before  happened.  Cic. 

8.  KELATIVE  ATTRACTED. — The  relative  is  sometimes  attracted  into  the 
case  of  the  antecedent,  and  sometimes  agrees  with  the  antecedent  repeated : 

Judice  quo  (for  quern)  nosti,  the  judge  whom  you  know.   Hor.    Dies  Instat, 

1  Qul  agrees  \vit1ipuerl  and  mulieres  conjointly,  and  is  in  the  masculine,  according 
to  439,  2;  but  quae  is  in  the  neuter,  according  to  439,  8. 

2  Nos,  referring  to  ego  ac  tu,  is  in  the  first  person ;  -while  qul,  referring  to  tu  et  col- 
legae,  is  in  the  second  person,  as  is  shown  by  the  verb  sperastis. 

3  In  these  examples,  the  pronouns  quern,  quod,  and  ea  are  attracted,  to  agree  with 
their  predicate  nouns,  hominem,  caput,  and  confessio;  but  qul  agrees  with  the  apposi- 
Uve,  Rhenus. 


246  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

quo  die,  the  day  is  at  hand,  on  which  day.   Caes.    Cumae,  quam  urbem  tene- 
bant,  Cumae,  which  city  tliey  held.   Liv. 

9.  ANTECEDENT  ATTRACTED. — In  poetry,  rarely  in  prose,  the  antecedent  is 
sometimes  attracted  into  the  case  of  the  relative  *,  and  sometimes  incorporated 
in  the  relative  clause  with  the  relative  in  agreement  with  it : 

Urbem,  quam  statuo,  vestra  est,  the  city  which  I  am  building  is  yours. 
Verg.1  Malarum,  quas  amor  curas  habet,  obllviscl  (for  maldrum  cur  arum 
quds),  to  forget  the  wretched  cares  which  love  has.  Hor.1  Quos  vos  implorare 
debetis,  ut,  quam  urbem  pulcherrimam  esse  voluerunt,  hanc 2  defendant,  these 
(lit.,  whom)  you  ought  to  implore  to  defend  this  city,  which  they  wished  to  be 
most  beautiful.  Cic. 

USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

446.  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. — The  Nominative  of  Personal  Pro- 
nouns is  used  only  for  emphasis  or  contrast : 3 

Slgnificamus  quid  sentiamus,  we  show  what  we  think.  Cic.  Ego  reges 
•ejecl,  vos  tyrannos  introducitis,  I  have  banished  kings,  YOU  introduce  tyrants. 
€ic. 

NOTE  1. — With  quidem  the  pronoun  is  usually  expressed,  but  not  with  equidem: 

Fads  amice  tu  quidem,  you  act  indeed  in  a  friendly  manner.  Cic.  Non  dubita- 
toam  equidem,  I  did  not  doubt  indeed.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— A  writer  sometimes  speaks  of  himself  in  the  plural,  using  nds  for  ego,  nos- 
ter  for  meus,  and  the  plural  verb  for  the  singular : 

Tides  nds  (for  me)  multa  conari,  you  see  that  WE  (for  I)  are  attempting  many 
things.  Cic.  Sermo  explicabit  nostram  (for  meam)  sententiam,  the  conversation  will 
unfold  OUR  (MY)  opinion.  Cic.  Diximus  (for  dixi)  multa,  /  have  said  many  things. 
Cic.< 

NOTE  3_ — Nostrl  and  vestrl  are  generally  used  in  an  objective  sense ;  nostrum  and 
vestrum  in  a  partitive  sense : 

Habetis  ducem  memorem  vestrz,  you  have  a  leader  mindful  OP  YOUB  INTERESTS  (OP 
YOU).  Cic.  Minus  habeo  virium  quam  vestrum  utervis,  I  have  less  strength  than  either 
OF  YOU.  Cic.  Qws  nostrum,  ^/WOFTJS?  Cic. 

NOTE  4. — With  ab,  ad,  or  apud,  a  personal  pronoun  may  designate  the  residence  or 
abode  of  a  person : 

A  nobls  Sgreditur,  he  is  coming  FROM  OUR  HOUSE.  Ter.  Yen!  ad  me,  I  came  TO  MY 
HOUSE.  Cic.  Eamus  ad  me,  let  us  go  to  my  house.  Ter.  Apud  te  est,  he  is  at  your 
house.  Cic.  Euri  apud  se  est,  he  is  at  his  residence  in  the  country.  Cic.  See  also 
433, 1.,  ad,  apud,  etc. 

447.  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS,  when  not  emphatic,  are  seldom 
expressed,  if  they  can  be  supplied  from  the  context : 

Mantis  lava,  wash  your  hands.  Cic.  Mih!  mea  vita  cara  est,  my  life  is 
•dear  to  me.5  Plaut. 

1  For  other  examples,  see  Verg.,  Aen.,  V.,  23-30;  Hor.,  Sat.,  I.,  10, 16. 

2  Quam  urbem,  hanc  =  hanc  urbem,  quam. 

3  The  learner  will  remember  that  a  pronominal  subject  is  actually  contained  in  the 
ending  of  the  verb;  see  368,  2,  foot-note. 

4  For  other  examples,  see  Hor.,  Sat.,  I.,  9,  7,  and  Car.,  I.,  82. 
8  In  this  example  mea  is  expressed  for  emphasis. 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS.  247 

NOTE  1.— Possessive  Pronouns  sometimes  mean  favorable,  propitious,  as  alienus 
often  means  unfavorable : 

Vadimus  baud  numine  nostro,  we  advance  under  a  divinity  not  propitious.  Verg. 
Tempore  tuo  pugnasti,  you  fought  at  a  favorable  time.  Liv.  Ferunt  sua  flamina  clas« 
sem,  favorable  winds  bear  the  fleet.  Yerg.  Alieno  loco  proelium  committunt,  they  en- 
gage in  battle  in  an  unfavorable  place.  Caes. 

NOTE  2. — For  the  Possessive  Pronoun  in  combination  with  a  Genitive,  see  398,  3. 

448.  REFLEXIVE  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. — Sul  and  sum  have  a  re- 
flexive sense  ;  l  sometimes  also  the  other  personal  and  possessive 
pronouns  : 

Miles  se  ipsum  interfecit,  the  soldier  killed  himself.  Tac.  Telo  se  de- 
fendit,  he  defends  himself  with  a  weapon.  Cic.  Sua  vl  movetur,  he  is  moved 
by  his  own  power.  Cic.  Me  consolor,  I  console  myself.  Cic.  Vos  vestra  tecta 
defendite,  defend  your  houses.  Cic. 

NOTE. — Inter  nos,  inter  vos,  inter  se,  have  a  reciprocal  force,  each  other,  one,  an- 
other, together;  but  instead  of  inter  se,  the  noun  may  be  repeated  in  an  oblique  case : 

Colloquimur  inter  DOS,  we  converse  together.  Cic.  Amant  inter  se,  they  love  one 
another.  Cic.  Homines  hominibus  utiles  sunt,  men  are  useful  to  men  (i.  e.,  to  each 
other).  Cic. 

449.  Sul  and  suus  generally  refer  to  the  Subject  of  the  clause 
in  which  they  stand  : 

Se  diligit,  he  loves  himself.  Cic.  Justitia  propter  sese  colenda  est,  justice 
should  be  cultivated  for  its  own  sake.  Cic.  Annulum  suum  dedit,  lie  gave  his 
ring.  Nep.  Per  se  sibl  quisque  cams  est,  every  one  is  in  Ids  very  nature 
(through  or  in  himself)  dear  to  himself.  Cic. 

1.  In  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES  expressing  the  sentiment  of  the  principal 
subject,  sui  and  sum  generally  refer  to  that  subject : 

Sentit  animus  se  vi  sua  mover!,  the  mind  perceives  that  it  is  moved  by  its  own 
power.  Cic.  A  me  petivit  ut  secum  essem,  he  asked  (from)  me  to  be  with  him  (that  I 
would  be).  Cic.  Pervestigat  quid  sui  elves  cogitent,  he  tries  to  ascertain  what  his 
felloe-citizens  think.  Cic. 

1)  As  sui  and  suus  thus  refer  to  subjects,  the  demonstratives,  is,  ille,  etc.,  generally 
refer  either  to  other  words,  or  to  subjects  which  do  not  admit  sui  and  suus : 

Deum  agnoscis  ex  ejus  operibus,  you  recognise  a  god  by  (from)  his  works.  Cic. 
Obligat  civitatem  nihil  e6s  mutaturos,  he  binds  the  state  not  to  cJiange  anything  (that 
they  will).  Just. 

2)  In  some  subordinate  clauses  the  writer  may  at  pleasure  use  either  the  reflexive  or 
the  demonstrative,  according  as  he  wishes  to  present  the  thought  as  that  of  the  principal 
subject,  or  as  his  own : 

Persuadent  Tulingis  utl  cum  ils  2  proficiscantur,  they  persuade  the  Tulingi  to  de- 
part with  them.  Caes. 

3)  Sometimes  reflexives  and  demonstratives  are  used  without  any  apparent  distinction  5 

1  Sul,  of  himself;  sibl,  for  himself;  se,  himself. 

2  Here  cum  Us  is  the  proper  language  for  the  writer  without  reference  to  the  senti- 
ment of  the  principal  subject;  secum,  which  would  be  equally  proper,  would  present  the 
thought  as  the  sentiment  of  that  subject. 


248  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

Caesar  Fabium  cum  Jegione  sua l  remittit,  Caesar  sends  back  Fabius  and  (with) 
his  legion.  Caes.  Omitto  Isocratem  discipulosque  ejus,1  I  omit  Isocrates  and  Ms  dis- 
ciples. Cic. 

2.  Suus,  in  the  sense  of  His  OWN,  FITTING,  etc.,  may  refer  to  subject  or 
object : 

Justitia  suum  cuique  tribuit,  justice  gives  to  every  man  his  due  (his  own).  Cic. 

3.  SYNESIS. — When  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  not  the  real  agent  of  the 
action,  sul  and  suus  refer  to  the  agent : 

A  Caesare  invitor  sibi  ut  sim  legatus,  lam  invited  by  Caesar  (real  agent)  to  be  his 
lieutenant.  Cic. 

4.  THE  PLURAL  OF  Suus,  meaning  His  FRIENDS,  THEIR  FRIENDS,  THEIR 
POSSESSIONS,  etc.,  is  used  with  great  freedom,  often  referring  to  oblique 
cases : 

Fuit  hoc  luctuosum  suls,  this  was  afflicting  to  his  friends.*  Cic. 

5.  Sui  and  Suus  sometimes  refer  to  an  omitted  subject : 
Deforme  est  do  se  praedicare,  to  boast  of  one's  self  is  disgusting.  Cic. 

6.  Two  REFLEXIVES. — Sometimes  a  clause  has  one  reflexive  referring  to 
the  principal  subject,  and  another  referring  to  the  subordinate  subject : 

Eespondit  neminein  secum  sine  sua  pernicie  contendisse,  he  replied  that  no  one  had 
contended  with  him  without  (his)  destruction?  Caes. 

450.  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. — Hlc,  iste,  ille,  are  often 
called  respectively  demonstratives  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Third 
Persons,  as  Me  designates  that  which  is  near  the  speaker  ;  iste^  that 
which  is  near  the  person  addressed ;  and  ille,  that  which  is  remote 
from  both : 

Gustos  hujus  urbis,  the  guardian  of  this  city  (i.  e.,  of  our  city).  Cic.  Muta 
istam  mentem,  change  that  purpose  of  yours.  Cic.  Ista  quae  sunt  a  te  dicta, 
those  things  which,  were  spolcen  by  you.  Cic.  Si  illos,  quos  videre  non  pos- 
sumus,  neglegis,  if  you  disregard  tJiose  (far  away,  yonder)  whom  we  can  not 
vee.  Cic. 

1.  Hie  designates  an  object  conceived  as  near,  and  ille  as  remote,  whether 
in  space,  time,  or  thought  : 

Non  antique  illo  more,  sed  hoc  nostro  fuit  enidltus,  he  was  educated,  not  in  that 
ancient^  "but  in  this  our  modern  way.  Cic.  Hoc  illud  fuit,  was  it  (that)  this  f  Verg. 

NOTE.— The  idea  of  contempt  often  implied  in  clauses  with  iste  is  not  strictly  con- 
tained in  the  pronoun  itself,  but  derived  from  the  context : 4 

Animi  est  ista  mollities,  non  virtus,  THAT  is  an  effeminate,  spirit,  not  valor.  Caes. 

1  Observe  that  the  reflexive  is  used  in  the  first  example,  and  the  demonstrative  in 
the  second,  though  the  cases  are  entirely  alike. 

2  Hero  suls  refers  to  an  oblique  case  in  the  preceding  sentence. 

3  Here  se  refers  to  the  subject  of  respondit,  and  sud  to  neminem,  the  subject  of  the 
subordinate  clause. 

4  The  idea  of  contempt  is  readily  explained  by  the  fact  that  iste  Is  often  applied  to 
the  views  of  an  opponent,  to  a  defendant  before  a  court  of  justice,  and  the  like. 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS.  249 

2.  FORMER  AND  LATTER.— In  reference  to  two  objects  previously  mentioned, 
(1)  hie  generally  follows  ille  and  refers  to  the  latter  object,  while  ille  refers 
to  Reformer;  but  (2)  hie  may  precede  and  may  refer  to  the  former,  and  ille 
refer  to  the  latter  : 

Inimici,  amici ;  illl,  hi,  enemies,  friends ;  the  former,  the  latter.  Cic.  Certa  pax, 
sperata  victoria;  haec  (pax)  in  tua,  ilia  in  deorum  potestate  est,  sure  peace,  hoped-for 
victory,'  the  former  is  in  your  power,  the  latter  in  the  power  of  the  gods.  Liv. 

NOTE.— Bio  refers  to  the  former  object,  when  that  object  is  conceived  of  as  nearer 
in  thought,  either  because  of  its  importance,  or  because  of  its  close  connection  with  the 
subject  under  discussion.1 

3.  Hie  and  ille  are  often  used  of  what  immediately  follows  in  discourse : 
His  verbls  epistulam  mlsit,  he  sent  a  letter  in  these  words  (i.  e.,  in  the  following 

words).  Nep.    Illud  intellegO,  omnium  ora  in  mo  conversa  esse,  this  I  understand,  that 
the  eyes  of  all  are  turned  upon  me.  Sail. 

4.  Ille  is  often  used  of  what  is  WELL  KNOWN,  FAMOUS  : 

Medea  ilia,  that  well-known  Medea.  Cic.  Ego,  ille  ferox,  tacul,  I,  that  haughty  one, 
was  silent.  Ovid. 

NOTE  1.— Sic  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  meus  or  noster,  rarely  to  ego,  and  hie 
homo  to  ego : 

Supra  hanc  memoriam,  before  our  time  (lit.,  "before  this  memory).  Cic.  His  mels 
litteris,  with  this  letter  of  mine  (from  me).  Cic.  Hie  homOst  omnium  hominum,  etc., 
of  all  men  lam,  etc.  (lit.,  this  man  is).  Plaut. 

NOTB  2. — Hie,  ille,  and  is  are  sometimes  redundant,  especially  with  quidem  : 

Sclpio  non  multum  ille  dicebat,  Scipio  did  not  indeed  say  much.  Cic.  Graeci  vo- 
lunt  illl  quidem,  the  Greeks  indeed  desire  it.  Cic.  Ista  tranquillitas  ea  ipsa  est  beata 
vita,  that  tranquillity  is  itself  a  happy  life.*  Cic. 

NOTE  3.— A  demonstrative  or  relative  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  a  Genitive,  or  to  a 
preposition  with  its  case  :  hie  amor  =  amor  hvjus  rlf, '  the  love  of  this ' ;  haec  cura  = 
cur  a  de  hoc, '  care  concerning  this.' 

NOTE  4. — Adverbs  derived  from  demonstrative  pronouns  share  the  distinctive  mean- 
ings of  the  pronouns  themselves : 

Hie  plus  mall  est,  quam  illlc  boni,  there  is  more  of  evil  here,  than  of  good  there.  Ter. 
See  also  304;  305. 

451.  Is  and  Idem  refer  to  preceding  nouns,  or  are  the  antece- 
dents of  relatives : 

Dionysius  aufugit,  is  est  in  provincia,  Dionysius  has  fled,  he  is  in  the 
province.  Cic.  Is  qul  satis  habet,  he  who  has  enough.  Cic.  Eaclem  audlre 
malunt,  they  prefer  to  hear  the  same  things.  Liv. 

1.  The  pronoun  is,  the  weakest  of  the  demonstratives,  is  often  understood,  especially 
before  a  relative  or  a  Genitive: 

Flebat  pater  de  filii  morte,  de  patris  filius,  the  father  wept  over  the  death  of  the  son, 
the  son  over  (that)  of  the  father.  Cic.  See  also  445,  6. 

1  Thus,  in  the  last  example,  haec  refers  to  certa  pdoo  as  the  more  prominent  object 
in  the  mind  of  the  speaker,  as  he  is  setting  forth  the  advantages  of  a  sure  peace  over  a 
hoped-for  victory. 

8  For  other  examples,  see  Yerg.,  Aen,,  I.,  8 ;  III.,  490;  and  XL,  809.    For  the  use  of 
personal  pronouns  with  quidem,  see  446,  note  1. 
12 


250  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

2.  Is,  with  a  conjunction,  is  often  used  for  emphasis,  like  the  English,  and  that  too, 
and  that  indeed : 

Unam  rem  explicabO,  eamque  maximam,  one  thing  I  will  explain,  and  that  too  a 
most  important  one.  Cic.  Audire  Cratippum,  idque  Athems,  to  hear  Cratippw,  and 
that  too  at  Athens.1  Cic. 

8.  Idem  is  sometimes  best  rendered  also,  at  the  same  time,  at  once,  doth,  yet: 

Nihil  utile,  quod  non  idem  honestum,  nothing  useful,  which  is  not  also  honorable. 
Cic.  Cum  dlcat,  negat  Idem,  though  he  asserts,  he  yet  denies  (the  same  denies).  Cic. 
Rex  Anius,  rex  idem  hominum  Phoeblque  sacerdos,  King  Anius,  loth  king  of  men  and 
priest  of  Apollo.  Verg. 

4.  Is—qul  means  he—w7io,  such— as,  such— that: 

II  sumus,  qul  esse  debemus,  we  are  such  as  we  ought  to  "be.  Cic.  Ea  est  gens  quae 
nesciat,  the  race  is  such  that  it  knows  not.  Liv. 

5.  Idem — qul  means  the  same — who,  the  same — as,'  Idem — dc  (atque,  et,  que),  Idem 
—ut,  Idem— cum  with  the  Ablative,  the  same— as: 

Eidem  mores,  qul,  the  same  manners  which  or  as.  Cic.  Est  Idem  ac  fuit,  he  is  the 
same  as  he  was.  Ter.  Eodem  mecum  patre  genitus,  the  son  of  the  same  father  as  I 
(with  me).  Tac. 

6.  For  the  DISTINCTION  BETWEEN  is  and  sui  in  subordinate  clauses,  see  449, 1,  2). 

452.  Ipse  adds  emphasis,  generally  rendered  self: 
Ipse  Pater  fulraina  molltur,  the  Father  himself  (Jupiter)  hurls  the  thunder- 
bolts. Verg.    Ipse 2  dixit,  he  himself  said  it.   Cic.    Ipse  Caesar,  Caesar  him- 
self. Cic.    Fac  ut  te  ipsum  custodias,  see  that  you  guard  yourself.   Cic. 

1.  Ipse  belongs  to  the  emphatic  word,  whether  subject  or  object,  but  with  a  prefer- 
ence for  the  subject : 

Me  ipse  consolor,  I  myself  (not  another)  console  myself.  Cic.  Ipse  se  quisque  dlli- 
git,  every  one  (himself)  loves  himself.  Cic.  Se  ipsum  interfecit,  he  killed  himself.  Tac. 

NOTE>- Ipse  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  secum,  'with  himself,'  'alone,'  or  hyper 
se,  'by  himself,'  'unaided,'  'in  and  of  himself,'  etc.: 

Aliud  genitor  secum  ipse  volutat,  the  father  (Jupiter)  himself  alone  ponders  an- 
other plan.  Yerg.  Quod  est  rectum  ipsumque  per  se  laudabile,  which  is  right,  and  in 
and  of  itself  praiseworthy.  Cic. 

2.  Ipse  is  often  best  rendered  by  very : 
Ipse  ille  Gorgias,  that  very  Gorgias.  Cic. 

3.  With  numerals,  ipse  means  just  so  many,  just;  so  also  in  nunc  ipsum,  'just  at 
this  time' ;  turn  ipsum,  'just  at  that  time' : 

Trlginta  dies  ipsl,  just  thirty  days.  Cic.  Nunc  ipsum  sine  te  esse  non  possum,  just 
at  this  time  I  cannot  be  without  you.  Cic. 

4.  Ipse  in  the  Genitive  with  possessives  has  the  force  of  own,  one's  own : 
Nostra  ipsorum  amicitia,  our  own  friendship.  Cic.    See  398,  3. 

5.  Ipse  in  a  subordinate  clause  sometimes  refers  to  the  principal  subject,  like  an  em- 
phatic sui  or  suus : 

Legates  mlsit  qul  ipsl  vitam  peterent,  he  sent  messengers  to  ask  life  for  himself.  Sail. 

6.  Et  ipse  and  ipse  quoque  may  often  be  rendered  also,  likewise,  even  he: 3 

Alius  Achilles  natus  et  ipse  dea,  another  Achilles  likewise  (lit.,  himself  also)  bom 
of  a  goddess.  Verg. 

1  Id,  thus  used,  often  refers  to  a  clause,  or  to  the  general  thought,  as  in  this  example. 

2  Applied  to  Pythagoras  by  his  disciples.    Ipse  is  often  thus  used  of  a  superior,  as 
of  a  master,  teacher,  etc. 

s  Compare  the  Greek  KOL  avro'?. 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS.  251 

7.  For  the  use  of  the  Nominative  ipse  in  connection  with  the  Ablative  Absolute,  see 
431,  note  3. 

453.  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. — The  relative  is  often  used  where 
the  English  idiom  requires  a  demonstrative  or  personal  pronoun  ; 
sometimes  even  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  : 

Res  loquitur  ipsa,  quae  semper  valet,  the  fact  itself  speaks,  and  this 
(which)  ever  has  weight.  Cic.  QuI  proelium  committunt,  they  engage  in  bat- 
tle. Caes.  Quae  curn  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so.  Cic. 

1.  RELATIVES  and  DEMONSTRATIVES  are  often  correlatives  to  each  other; 
hie — qui,  iste — qui,  etc.     These  combinations  generally  retain  the  ordinary 
force  of  the  separate  words,  hut  see  is — qui,  idem — qui,  451,  4  and  5. 

NOTE. — The  neuter  quidquid,^  accompanied  by  an  adjective,  a  participle,  or  a  Geni- 
tive, may  be  used  of  persons : 

Matres  et  quidquid  tecum  invalidum  est  delige,  select  the  mothers  and  whatever 
feeble  persons  there  are  with  you  (lit.,  whatever  there  is  with  you  feeble).  Verg. 
Quidquid  erat  patrum,  whatever  fathers  there  were.  Liv.  Bee  also  397,  3,  note  5. 

2.  In  Two  SUCCESSIVE  CLAUSES,  the  relative  may  he— (1)  expressed  in 
both,  (2)  expressed  in  the  first  and  omitted  in  the  second,  (3)  expressed  ipi 
the  first  and  followed  by  a  demonstrative  in  the  second : 

Nos  qui  sermon!  non  interfuissemus  et  quibus  Cotta  sententias  tradidisset,  we  who 
had  not  been  present  at  the  conversation,  and  to  whom  Cotta  Jiad  reported  the  opin- 
ions. Cic.  Dumnorir  qui  principatum  obtinebat  ac  plebi  acceptus  erat,  Dumnorfa,  who 
held  the  chief  authority,  and  who  was  acceptable  to  the  common  people.  Caes.  Quae 
nee  habSremus  nee  his  uteremur,  which  ice  should  neither  have  nor  use.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— Several  relatives  may  appear  in  successive  clauses : 

Omnes  qui  vestitum,  qui  tecta,  qui  cultum  vitae,  qui  praesidia  contra  feras  invCnG- 
runt,  all  who  introduced  (invented)  clothing,  houses,  the  refinements  of  life,  protec* 
tion  against  wild  oeasts.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— A  relative  clause  with  is  is  often  equivalent  to  a  substantive  :  il  qui  au- 
diunt  =  audltores,  '  hearers.1 

3.  Two  RELATIVES  sometimes  occur  in  the  same  clause  i 

Artes  quas  qui  tenent,  arts,  whose  possessors  (which  who  possess).  Cic. 

4.  A  RELATIVE  CLAUSE  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  the  Ablative  with^?r5.' 
Sperd,  quae  tua  prudentia  est,  te  valere,  /  hope  you  are  well,  such  is  your  prudence 

(which  is,  etc.).  Cic. 

NOTE.— Quae  tua  prudentia  est  =  qua  es  prudentia  =  pro  tua  prudentia,  means  such 
is  your  prudence,  or  you  are  of  such  prudence,  or  in  accordance  with  your  pru- 
dence, etc. 

5.  RELATIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVE. — Adjectives  belonging  in  sense  to  the  anten 
cedent,  especially  comparatives,  superlatives,  and  numeralSj  sometimes  stand 
in  the  relative  clause  in  agreement  with  the  relative : 

Vasa,  quae  pulcherrima  viderat,  the  most  beautiful  vessels  which  he  had  seen  (vesi 
eels,  which  the  most  beautiful  he  had  seen).  Cic.  De  servis  suls,  quern  habuit  fidelissi- 
mum,  mlsit,  he  sent  the  most  faithful  of  the  slaves  that  he  had.  Nep. 

6.  The  neuter,  quod,  used  as  an  adverbial  Accusative,  often  stands  at  the  beginning 

1  Of  the  general  or  indefinite  relative  quisquis. 


252  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

of  a  sentence  or  clause,  especially  before  si,  nl,  nisi,  etsl,  and  sometimes  before  quia, 
quoniam,  utinam,  etc.,  to  indicate  a  close  connection  with  what  precedes.  In  trans- 
lating it  is  sometimes  best  omitted,  and  sometimes  best  rendered  by  now,  in  fact,  but, 
and : 

Quod  si  ceciderint,  but  if  they  should  fall.1  Cic.  Quod  si  ego  resclvissem  id  prius, 
now  if  I  had  learned  this  sooner.1  Ter. 

7.  Qul  dicitur,  qul  vocdtur,  or  the  corresponding  active,  quern  dicunt,  quern  vocant, 
are  often  used  in  the  sense  of  so-called,  the  so-called,  what  they  or  you  call,  etc. : 

Vestra  quae  dicitur  vita,  mors  est,  your  so-called  life  (lit.,  your,  which  is  called 
life)  is  death.  Cic.  Lex  ista  quam  vocas  non  est  lex,  that  laic,  as  you  call  it,  is  not  a 
law.  Cic. 

454.  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS. — The  Interrogative   quis  is 
used  substantively  ;  qm,  adjectively : 

Quis  ego  sum,  who  am  I?  Cic.  Quid  faciet,  what  will  he  do?  Cic.  Qul 
vir  fuit,  what  kind  of  a  man  was  he  ?  Cic. 

1.  Occasionally  quis  is  used  adjectively  and  qul  substantively : 

Quis  rex  unquam  fuit,  what  king  was  there  ever  T  Cic.  Qul  sis,  considers,  consider 
u-ho  you  are.  Cic. 

NOTE.— The  neuter,  quid,  is  sometimes  used  of  persons;  see  397,  3,  note  5. 

2.  QUID,  why,  how  is  it  that,  etc.,  is  often  used  adverbially  (378,  2),  or  stands  ap- 
parently unconnected : a  quid,  'why?1  'what?1  quid  enim,  'why  then?'  'what  then?1 
'what  indeed?1  quid  ita,  'why  so?1  quid  quod,  'what  of  the  fact  that?1   quid  si, 
1  what  if? ' : 

Quid  venistl,  why  have  you  come?  Plaut.  Quid  enim?  metusne  conturbet,  what 
then  f  would  fear  disturb  us  f  Cic.  Quid  quod  delectantur,  what  of  the  fact  that  they 
are  delighted?  Cic. 

8.  Two  INTERROGATIVES  sometimes  occur  in  the  same  clause : 

Quis  quern  fraudavit,  who  defrauded,  and  whom  did  he  defraud  (lit.,  who  de- 
frauded wJwiri)t  Cic. 

4.  Tant us  sometimes  accompanies  the  interrogative  pronoun : 

Quae  fuit  unquam  in  ullo  homine  tanta  constantia,  was  there  ever  so  great  constancy 
in  any  man  ?'  Cic. 

455.  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS.  3 — Aliquis,  quiSj  qui,  and  quispiam, 
are  all  indefinite — some  one,  any  one : 

Est  aliquis,  tliere  is  some  one.  Liv.  Sensus  aliquis  esse  potest,  there  may 
be  some  sensation.  Cic.  Dixit  quis,  some  one  said.  Cic.  Si  quis  rex,  if  any 
Icing.  Cic.  Alia  res  quaepiam,  any  other  thing.  Cic. 

1.  Quis  and  qul  are  used  chiefly  after  si,  nisi,  ne,  and  num.    Aliquis  and  quis  are 
generally  used  substantively,  aliqul  and  qul  adjectively.    Aliquis  and  aliqul  after  si, 
nisi,  etc.,  are  emphatic: 

SI  est  aliqul  sensus  in  morte,  if  there  is  any  sensation  whatever  in  death.  Cic. 

2.  Nescid  quis  and  nescid  qul  often  supply  the  place  of  indefinite  pronouns : 

1  Here  quod  refers  to  something  that  precedes,  and  means  in  reference  to  which,  in 
reference  to  this,  in  this  connection,  etc.  For  other  examples,  see  Caesar,  B.  G.,  I.,  14, 
and  VII.,  88. 

a  In  some  instances  quid  is  readily  explained  by  the  ellipsis  of  some  form  of  died 
OTofsuvn. 

3  For  a  full  illustration  of  the  use  of  indefinite  pronouns,  see  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  87-103. 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS.  253 

Nesci6  quis  loquitur,  some  one  speaks  (lit.,  /  know  not  who  speaks,  or  one  speaks, 
I  know  not  who).  Plaut.  Nescio  quid  mihi  animus  praesagit  mall,  my  mind  forebodes 
some  evil  (191,  note).  Ter. 

456.  Quidam  j  l  a  certain  one,'  is  less  indefinite  than  aliquis : 
Quldam  rhetor  antlquus,  a  certain  ancient  rhetorician.  Cic.    Accurrit  qul- 

dam,  a  certain  one  runs  up.  Hor. 

1.  Quidam  with  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used  to  qualify  or  soften  the  statement: 
Justitia  mirifica  quaedam  videtur,  justice  seems  somewhat  wonderful.  Cic. 

2.  Quidam  with  quasi,  and  sometimes  without  it,  has  the  force  of  a  certain,  a  kind 
of,  as  it  were : 

Quasi  alumna  quaedam,  a  certain  foster-child,  as  it  were.  Cic. 

457.  Quisquam  and  ullus  are  used  chiefly  in  negative  and  con- 
ditional sentences,  and  in  interrogative  sentences  implying  a  nega- 
tive : 

Neque  me  quisquam  agnovit,  nor  did  any  one  recognize  me.  Cic.  Si  quis- 
quam,  if  any  one.  Cic.  Num  censes  ullum  animal  esse,  do  you  think  there  is 
any  animal  ?  Cic. 

1.  Nemo  is  the  negative  of  quisquam,  and  like  quisquam  is  generally  used  substan- 
tively,  rarely  adjectively : 

Neminem  laesit,  he  harmed  no  one.  Cic.    Nemo  poeta,  no  poet.  Cic. 

2.  Nullus  is  the  negative  of  ullus,  and  is  generally  used  adjectively,  but  it  sometimes 
supplies  the  Genitive  and  Ablative  of  nemo,  which  generally  wants  those  cases : 

Nullum  animal,  no  animal.  Cic.    Nulllus  aures,  the  ears  of  no  one.  Cic. 

8.  Nullus  and  nihil  are  sometimes  used  for  an  emphatic  non : 

Nullus  venit,  he  did  not  come.  Cic.    MortuI  nulli  sunt,  the  dead  are  not.  Cic. 

458.  Qulvls,  qullibet,  '  any  one  whatever, '  and  quisque,  l  every 
one,'  '  each  one,'  are  general  indefinites  (190): 

Quaelibet  res,  anything.  Cic.  Tuorum  quisque  necessariorum,  each  one 
of  your  friends.  Cic. 

1.  Quisque  with  superlatives  and  ordinals  is  generally  best  rendered  by  all,  or  by 
ever,  always  ;  with  primus  by  very,  possible : 

Epicureos  doctissimus  quisque  contemnit,  all  the  most  learned  despise  the  Epicu- 
reans, or  the  most  learned  ever  despise,  etc.  Cic.  Primo  quoque  die,  the  earliest  day 
possible,  the  very  first.  Cic. 

2.  Ut  quisque— ita  with  the  superlative  in  both  clauses  is  often  best  rendered,  the 
more— the  more : 

Ut  quisque  sib!  plurimum  confidit,  ita  maxime  excellit,  the  more  one  confides  in 
one's  self,  the  more  one  excels.  Cic. 

459.  Alius  means  *  another,  other' ;  alter,  'the  one,'  'the  other' 
(of  two),  'the  second,'  'a  second.'    They  are  often  repeated  :  alius 
— alius,  one — another  ;  alii — alii,  some — others  ;  alter — alter,  the 
one — the  other  ;  alterl — alteri,  the  one  party — the  other  : 

Legates  alium  ab  alio  aggreditur,  he  tampers  witli  tlie  ambassadors  one  after 
another.  Sail.  Alii  gloriae  serviunt,  alii  pecimiae,  some  are  slaves  to  glory ^ 
others  to  money.  Cic.  Quidquid  negat  alter,  et  alter,  whatever  one  denies,  the 


254  AGREEMENT  OF   VERBS. 

other  denies.  Hor.  Alter  erit  Tlphys,  there  will  be  a  second  TipTiys.  Verg. 
Tu  nunc  eris  alter  ab  illo,  you  will  now  be  next  after  him.  Verg.  Alter! 
dlmicant,  alterl  timent,  one  party  contends,  the  other  fears.  Cic. 

1.  Alius  or  alter  repeated  in  different  cases,  or  combined  with  alias  or  aliter,  often 
involves  an  ellipsis : 

Alias  alia  via  clvitatem  auxerunt,  they  advanced  the  state,  one  in  one  way,  another 
in  another.  Liv.    Aliter  alii  vivunt,  some  live  in  one  way,  others  in  another.  Cic. 

2.  After  alius,  aliter,  and  the  like,  atque,  dc,  and  et  often  mean  than: 
Non  alius  essem  atque  sum,  I  would  not  be  other  than  I  am.    Cic. 

3.  When  alter— alter  refer  to  objects  previously  mentioned,  the  first  alter  usually 
refers  to  the  latter  object,  but  may  refer  to  either : 

Inimlcus,  competitor,  cum  altero— -cum  altero,  an  enemy,  a  rival,  with  the  latter— 
with  the  former.  Cic. 

4.  Uterque  means  both,  each  of  two.    In  the  plural  it  generally  means  both,  each  of 
tu'o  parties,  but  sometimes  both,  each  of  tico  persons  or  things;  regularly  so  with  nouns 
which  are  plural  in  form  but  singular  in  sense : 

Utrique  vlctoriam  crudeliter  exercebant,  both  parties  made  a  cruel  use  of  victory 
Sail.    Palmas  utrasque  tetendit,  he  extended  both  his  hands.  Verg. 


CHAPTER    V. 
SYNTAX  OF  VERBS. 


SECTION    I. 

AGREEMENT    OF   VERBS.— USE    OF   VOICES. 

RULE  XXXVI.— Agreement  of  Verb  with  Subject. 

460.  A  finite  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  NUMBER 
and  PERSON  : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world.  Cic.  Ego  reges 
Gjeci,  vos  tyrannos  introducitis,  I  have  banished  kings,  you  introduce  ty- 
rants. Cic. 

1.  PARTICIPLES  IN  COMPOUND  TENSES  agree  with  the  subject  according 
to  438.  See  also  301,  1  and  2  : 

Theban!  accusatl  sunt,  the  Thebans  were  accused.   Cic. 

NOTE  1.— In  the  compound  forms  of  the  Infinitive,  the  participle  in  um  sometimes 
occurs  without  any  reference  to  the  gender  or  number  of  the  subject: 

Diffidentia  futurum  quae  imperavisset,  from  doubt  that  those  things  which  he  had 
commanded  would  take  place.  Sail. 

NOTE  2.— A  General  or  Indefinite  subject  is  often  denoted— 

1)  By  the  First  or  Third  Person  Plural,  and  in  the  Subjunctive  by  the  Second  Person 


AGREEMENT  OF  VERBS.  255 

Singular:  dlcimus,  'we  (people)  say';  dlcunt,  'they  say';  dleds,  'you  (any  one)  may 
say': 

SI  beat!  esse  volumus,  if  we  wish  to  be  happy.  Cic.  Agere  quod  agas  consideratu 
decet,  you  (one)  should  do  considerately  whatever  you  do  (one  does).  Cic. 

2)  By  an  Impersonal  Passive : 

Ad  fanum  concurritur,  they  rush  to  the  temple.  Cic.  Nisi  cum  virtute  vlvatur,  un- 
less they  live  (unless  one  lives)  virtuously.  Cic. 

NOTE  8. — For  the  Pronominal  Subject  contained  in  the  verb,  see  368,  2. 

NOTE  4.— -For  the  OMISSION  OF  THE  YEBB,  see  368,  8. 

461.  SYNESIS. — Sometimes  the  predicate  is  construed  accord- 
ing to  the  real  meaning  of  the  subject  without  regard  to  grammat- 
ical gender  or  number.     Thus — 

1.  With  collective  nouns,  pars,  multitudo,  and  the  like : 

Multitude  abeunt,  the  multitude  depart.  Liv.  Pars  per  agros  dilapsi,  a 
part  (some)  dispersed  through  the  fields.  Liv. 

NOTE  1. — Here  multitudd  and  pars,  though  singular  and  feminine  in  form,  are  plu- 
ral and  masculine  in  sense;  see  also  438,  6.  Conversely,  the  Imperative  singular  may  be 
used  in  addressing  a  multitude  individually : 

Adde  defectionem  Siciliae,  add  (to  this,  soldiers)  the  revolt  of  Sicily.  Liv. 

NOTE  2. — Of  two  verbs  with  tho  same  collective  noun,  the  former  is  often  singular, 
and  the  latter  plural : 

Juventus  ruit  certantque,  the  youth  rush  forth  and  contend.  Verg. 

2.  With  rriilia,  often  masculine  in  sense  : 

Caesi  sunt  tria  mllia,  three  thousand  men  were  slain.  Liv. 

3.  With  quisquc,  uterque,  alius — alium,  alter — altewm,  and  the  like : 
Uterque  educunt,  they  each  lead  out.  Caes.     Alter  alterum  videmus,  we 

see  each  other.  Cic. 

4.  With  singular  subjects  accompanied  by  an  Ablative  with  cum: 
Dux  cum  prmcipibus  capiuntur,  the  leader  with  his  chiefs  is  taken.  Liv. 

Quid  hue  tantum  hominum  (=  tot  homines)  incedunt,  why  are  so  many  men 
coming  hither  ?  Plaut.  See  also  438,  6. 

6.  With  partim— partim  in  the  sense  of  pars— pars: 

Bonorum  partim  necessaria,  partim  non  necessaria  sunt,  of  good  things 
some  are  necessary,  others  are  not  necessary.  Cic. 

462.  Sometimes  the  verb  agrees,  not  with  its  subject,  but  with 
an  APPOSITIVE  or  with  a  PREDICATE  NOUN  : 

Volsinil,  oppidum  Tuscorum,  concrematum  est,  Volsinii,  a  town  of  the 
Tuscans,  was  burned.  Plin.  Non  omnis  error  stultitia  est  dlcenda,  not  every 
error  should  be  called  folly.  Cic.  Puerl  Trojanum  dlcitur  agmen,  the  boys  are 
called  the  Trojan  band.  Verg. 

NOTE  1.— The  verb  regularly  agrees  with  the  appositive  when  that  is  urbs,  oppidum, 
or  clvitds,  in  apposition  with  plural  names  of  places,  as  in  the  first  example. 

NOTE  2.— The  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate  noun  when  that  is  nearer  or  more  em- 
phatic than  the  subject,  as  in  the  second  example. 


256  AGREEMENT  OF  VERBS. 

NOTE  3.— The  verb  sometimes  agrees  with  a  noun  in  a  subordinate  clause  after  quam, 
nisi,  etc. : 

Nihil  aliud  nisi  pax  quaeslta  est,  nothing  "but  peace  was  sought.  Cic. 

463.  With  TWO  OR  MORE  SUBJECTS  the  verb  agrees — 

I.  With  one  subject,  and  is  understood  with  the  others : 

Aut  mores  spectarl  aut  fortuna  solet,  either  character  or  fortune  is  wont  to 
be  regarded.  Cic.  Homerus  fuit  et  Hesiodus  ante  Komam  conditam,  Homer 
and  Hesiod  lived  (were)  before  the  founding  of  Rome.  Cic. 

II.  With  all  the  subjects  conjointly,  and  is  accordingly  in  the  plural 
number : 

Lentulus,  Scipio  perierunt,  Lentulus  and  Scipio  perished.  Cic.  Ego  et 
Cicero  valemus,  Cicero  and  I  are  well.  Cic.  Tu  et  Tullia  valetis,  you  and 
Tullia  are  well.  Cic. 

1.  "With  SUBJECTS  DIFFERING  IN  PERSON,  the  verb  takes  the  first  person 
rather  than  the  second,  and  the  second  rather  than  the  third ;  see  examples. 

2.  For  PARTICIPLES  IN  COMPOUND  TENSES,  see  439. 

3.  Two  SUBJECTS  AS  A  UNIT. — Two  singular  subjects  forming  in  sense  a 
unit  or  whole,  admit  a  singular  verb  : 

Senatus  populusque  intellegit,  the  senate  and  people  (i.  e.,  the  state  as  a 
unit)  understand.  Cic.  Tempus  necessitasque  postulat,  time  and  necessity 
(i.  e.,  the  crisis)  demand.  Cic. 

4.  WITH  AUT  OR  NEC. — When  the  subjects  connected  by  ant,  vel,  nee, 
neque  or  sen,  differ  in  person,  the  verb  is  usually  in  the  plural ;  but  when  they 
are  of  the  same  person,  the  verb  usually  agrees  with  the  nearest  subject: 

Haec  neque  ego  neque  tu  fecimus,  neither  you  nor  I  have  done  these  things. 
Ter.  Aut  Brutus  aut  Cassius  judicavit,  either  JZrutus  or  Cassius  judged.  Cic. 

464.  VOICES. — With  transitive  verbs,  a  thought  may  at  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  writer  be  expressed  either  actively  or  passively.     But — 

I.  That  which  in  the  active  construction  would  be  the  object  must  be 
the  subject  in  the  passive ;  and — 

II.  That  which  in  the  active  would  be  the  subject  must  be  put  in  the  Abla* 
tivc  with  a  or  ab  for  persons,  and  in  the  Ablative  alone  for  things  (415, 1. ;  420) : 

Deus  omnia  cdnstituit,  God  ordained  all  things.  A  Deo  omnia  constitute 
sunt,  all  things  were  ordained  by  God.  Cic.  Del  providentia  mundum  ad- 
ministrat,  the  providence  of  God  rules  the  world.  Del  providentia  mundus 
administratur,  the  world  is  ruled  by  the  providence  of  God.  Cic. 

465.  The  PASSIVE  VOICE,  like  the  Greek  Middle,1  is  sometimes 
equivalent  to  the  Active  with  a  reflexive  pronoun  : 

Lavantur  in  fiumimbus,  they  bathe  (wash  themselves)  in  the  rivers.  Caes. 

1  Most  Passive  forms  once  had  both  a  Middle  and  a  Passive  meaning,  as  in  Greek: 
but  in  Latin  the  Middle  or  Reflexive  meaning  has  nearly  disappeared,  though  retained 
to  a  certain  extent  in  special  verbs. 


TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE.  257 

Non  hie  victoria  vertitur,  not  upon  this  point  (here)  does  victory  turn  (turn 
itself).  Verg. 

1.  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  (193)  have  regularly  only  the  active  voice,  but 
they  are  sometimes  used  impersonally  in  the  passive : 

Curritur  ad  praetorium,  they  run  to  the  praetorium  (it  is  run  to).  Cic. 
Mihl  cum  ils  vlvendum  est,  I  must  live  with  them.  Cic. 

NOTE.— Verbs  which  are  usually  intransitive  are  occasionally  used  transitively,  es- 
pecially in  poetry : 

Ego  cur  invideor,  why  am  I  envied  ?  Hor. 

2.  DEPONENT  VERBS,  though  passive  in  form,  are  in  signification  transitive 
or  intransitive : 

Illud  mlrabar,  /  admired  that.  Cic.  Ab  urbe  proficisci,  to  set  out  from 
the  city.  Caes. 

NOTE  1. — Originally  many  deponent  verbs  seem  to  have  had  the  force  of  the  Greek 
Middle  voice  :  glorior,  *  I  boast  myself,'  '  I  boast' ;  vescor, '  I  feed  myself.' 

NOTE  2. — SEMI-DEPONENTS  have  some  of  the  active  forms  and  some  of  the  passive, 
without  change  of  meaning;  see  268,  8. 

SECTION   II. 

THE    INDICATIVE   AND    ITS   TENSES. 

I.  PRESENT  INDICATIVE. 

466.  The  Present  Indicative  represents  the  action  of  the  verb 
as  taking  place  at  the  present  time : 

Ego  et  Cicero  valemus,  Cicero  and  I  are  well.  Cic.  Hoc  te  rog5, 1  ask  you 
for  this.  Cic. 

NOTE.— -The  Present  of  the  Active  Periphrastic  Conjugation  denotes  an  intended  or 
future  action;  that  of  the  Passive,  &  present  necessity  or  duty  : 

Bellum  scripturus  sum,  /  intend  to  write  the  history  of  the  war.1  Sail.  Legendus 
est  hie  orator,  this  orator  ought  to  oe  read.1  Cic. 

467.  Hence  the  Present  Tense  is  used— 

I.  Of  actions  and  events  which  are  actually  taking  place  at  the  present 
time,  as  in  the  above  examples. 

II.  Of  actions  and  events  which,  as  belonging  to  all  time,  belong  of 
course  to  the  present,  as  general  truths  and  customs : 

Nihil  est  amabilius  virtute,  nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue.  Cic. 
Fortes  fortuna  adjuvat,  fortune  helps  the  brave.  Ter. 

III.  Of  past  actions  and  events  which  the  writer  wishes,  for  effect,  to 
picture  before  the  reader  as  present.    The  Present,  when  so  used,  is  called 
the  Historical  Present : 

1  Scripturus  sum  may  be  variously  rendered,  I  intend  to  write,  am  about  to  write, 
am  to  write,  am  destined  to  write,  etc. ;  legendus  est  means  7ie  ought  to  oe  read,  d6- 
wow  to  oe  readt  must  oe  read,  etc, 


258  TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE. 

Jugurtka  vallo  moenia  circumdat,  Jugurtha  surrounded  the  city  with  a 
rampart.  Sail. 

1.  The  HISTORICAL  PRESENT  is  used  much  more  freely  in  Latin  than  in 
English.    It  is  therefore  generally  best  rendered  by  a  past  tense. 

2.  The  Present  is  often  used  of  a  present  action  which  has  been  going  on 
for  some  time,  especially  after  jamdiu,  jamdudum,  etc. : 

Jamdiu  ignoro  quid  agas,  /  have  not  known  for  a  long  time  what  you  have 
been  doing.  Cic. 

3.  The  Present  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  may  be  used  of  authors  whose 
works  are  extant : 

Xenophon  facit  Socratem  disputantem,  Xenophon  represents  Socrates  dis- 
cussing. Cic. 

4.  With  dum,  l  while/  the  Present  is  generally  used,  whether  the  action 
is  present,  past,  or  future : 

Dum  ea  parant,1  Saguntum  oppugnabatur,  while  they  were  (are)  making 
these  preparations,  Saguntum  was  attacked.  Liv.  Dum  haec  geruntur,  Cae- 
sari  nuntiatum  est,  while  these  things  were  talcing  place,  it  was  announced  to 
Caesar.  Caes. 

NOTE. — But  with  dum,  meaning  as  long  a«,  the  Present  can  be  used  only  of  present 
time. 

5.  The  Present  is  sometimes  used  of  an  action  really  future,  especially  in 
animated  discourse  and  in  conditions  : 

Quam  prendimus  arcem,  what  stronghold  do  we  seize,  or  are  we  to  seize  f  Verg. 
Si  vincimus,  omnia  tuta  erunt,  if  we  conquer,  all  things  will  be  safe.  Sail. 

6.  The  Present  is  sometimes  used  of  an  attempted  or  intended  action : 
Virtutem  accendit,  he  tries  to  kindle  their  valor.  Verg.    Quid  me  terres, 

why  do  you  try  to  terrify  me  ?  Verg. 

II.  IMPEKFECT  INDICATIVE. 

468.  The  Imperfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as  taking 
place  in  past  time : 

Stabant  nobilissiml  juvenes,  there  stood  (were  standing)  most  noble  youths. 
Liv.  Colles  oppidum  cingebant,  hills  encompassed  the  town.  Caes.  Moturus 
exercitum  erat,  he  was  intending  to  move  his  army.  Liv. 

NOTE.— For  the  Imperfect  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  in  conditional  sentences, 
see  511,  2 

469.  Hence  the  Imperfect  is  used  especially — 

I.  In  lively  description,  whether  of  scenes  or  events : 

Ante  oppidum  planities  patebat,  before  the  town  extended  a  plain.  Caes. 
Fulgentes  gladios  videbant,  they  saw  (were  seeing)  the  gleaming  swords.  Cic. 

II.  Of  customary  or  repeated  actions  and  events,  often  rendered  was 
wont,  etc. : 

1  Here  the  time  denoted  by  parant  is  present  relatively  to  oppugnabatur,  and  there- 
fore really  past. 


TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE.  259 

Pausanias  epulabatur  more  Persarum,  Pausanias  was  wont  to  banquet  in 
the  Persian  style.  Nep. 

1.  The  Imperfect  is  sometimes  used  of  an  attempted  or  intended  action : » 
Sedabant  tumultus,  they  attempted  to  quell  the  seditions.  Liv. 

2.  The  Imperfect  is  often  used  of  a  past  action  which  had  been  going  on 
for  some  time,  especially  withjamdiu,jamdudum,  etc.  : 1 

Doimcilium  Eomae  multos  jam  annos  habebat,  he  7iad  already  for  many 
years  had  his  residence  at  Rome.  Cic. 

3.  The  Latin  sometimes  uses  the  Imperfect  where  the  English  requires  the 
Present : a 

Pastum  animantibus  natura  eum  qul  cuique  aptus  erat,  comparavit,  nature 
has  prepared  for  animals  tliatfood  which  is  adapted  to  each.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — For  the  Imperfect  in  LETTERS,  see  472, 1. 

NOTE  2.— For  the  descriptive  Imperfect  in  NABRATION,  see  471,  6. 

NOTE  3. — For  the  Historical  Tenses  in  expressions  of  DUTY,  PROPRIETY,  NECESSITY, 
etc.,  see  476,  4. 

III.  FUTURE  INDICATIVE. 

470.  The  Future  Indicative  represents  the  action  as  one  which 
will  take  place  in  future  time  : 

Scrlbam  ad  te,  I  shall  write  to  you.  Cic.  Nunquam  aberrabimus,  we  shall 
never  go  astray.  Cic. 

1.  In  Latin,  as  in  English,  the  Future  Indicative  sometimes  has  the  force  of 
an  Imperative : 

Curabis  et  scribes,  you  will  take  care  and  write.   Cic. 

2.  Actions  which  really  belong  to  future  time  are  almost  invariably  ex- 
pressed by  the  Future  tense,  though  sometimes  put  in  the  Present  in  English : 

Naturam  si  sequemur,  nunquam  aberrabimus,  if  we  follow  nature,  we  shall 
never  go  astray.  Cic. 

IV.  PERFECT  INDICATIVE. 

471.  The  Perfect  Indicative  has  two  distinct  uses: 

I.  As  the  PRESENT  PERFECT  or  PERFECT  DEFINITE,  it  represents 
the  action  as  at  present  completed,  and  is  rendered  by  our  Perfect 
with  have : 

De  genere  belli  dixl,  /  have  spoken  of  the  character  of  the  war.  Cic. 

II.  As  the  HISTORICAL  PERFECT  or  PERFECT  INDEFINITE,  it  rep- 
resents the  action  simply  as  an  historical  fact  : 

1  Observe  that  the  peculiarities  of  the  Present  reappear  in  the  Imperfect.    This  arises 
from  the  fact  that  these  two  tenses  are  precisely  alike  in  representing  the  action  in  its 
progress,  and  that  they  differ  only  in  time.    The  one  views  the  action  in  the  present,  the 
other  transfers  it  to  the  past. 

2  This  occurs  occasionally  in  the  statement  of  general  truths  and  in  the  description 
of  natural  scenes,  but  in  such  cases  the  truth  or  the  scene  is  viewed  not  from  the  present 
but  from  t 


260  TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE. 

Miltiades  est  accusatus,  Miltiades  was  accused.  Nep.  Quid  factttrl  fulstis, 
what  did  you  intend  to  do,  or  what  would  you  have  done?  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  Perfect  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  in  conditional  sentences,  see 
476, 1. 

1.  The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used — 

1)  Instead  of  the  Present  to  denote  the  suddenness  of  the  action : 

Terra  tremit,  mortalia  corda  stravit  pavor,  the  earth  trembles,  fear  over- 
whelm* (has  overwhelmed)  the  hearts  of  mortals.  Verg. 

2)  To  contrast  the  past  with  the  present,  implying  that  what  was  true  then 
is  not  true  now : 

Habuit,  non  habet,  he  had,  but  has  not.  Cic.    Fuit  Ilium,  Ilium  was.  Verg. 

2.  The  Perfect  Indicative  with  paene,  prope,  may  often  be  rendered  by 
might,  would,  or  by  the  Pluperfect  Indicative : 

Brutum  non  minus  amo,  paene  dixl,  quam  te,  /  love  Brutus  not  less,  I 
might  almost  say,  or  /  had  almost  said,  than  I  love  you.  Cic. 

3.  The  Latin  sometimes  employs  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  where  the 
English  uses  the  Present  and  Imperfect,  especially  in  repeated  actions,  and 
in  verbs  which  want  the  Present  (297) : 

Meminit  praeteritorum,  he  remembers l  the  past.  Cic.  Cum  ad  vlllam  venl, 
h6c  me  delectat,  when  I  come  (have  come)  to  a  villa,  this  pleases  me.  Cic. 
Memineram  Paullum,  I  remembered  Paullus.  Cic. 

4.  Conjunctions  meaning  as  soon  a*2  are  usually  followed  by  the  Perfect; 
sometimes  by  the  Imperfect  or  Historical  Present.    But  the  Pluperfect  is 
sometimes  used,  especially  to  denote  the  result  of  a  completed  action : 

Postquam  cecidit  Ilium,  after  (as  soon  as)  Ilium  fell,  or  had  fallen.  Verg. 
Ills  ub!  natum  prosequitur 3  dictls,  when  he  had  addressed  his  son  with  these 
words.  Verg.  Posteaquam  consul  fuerat,  after  he  had  been  consul.*  Cic. 
Anno  tertio  postquam  profugerat,  in  the  third  year  after  he  had  fled.  Nep. 

5.  In  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES  after  cum  (quum),  si,  etc.,  the  Perfect  is  some- 
times used  of  REPEATED  ACTIONS,  GENERAL  TRUTHS,  and  CUSTOMS  : 6 

Cum  ad  villam  vem,  hoc  me  delectat,  whenever  I  come  (have  come)  to  a 
villa,  this  delights  me.  Cic. 

NOTE.— -In  such  cases  the  principal  clause  generally  retains  the  Present,  as  in  the 
example  just  given,  but  in  poetry  and  in  late  prose  it  sometimes  admits  the  Perfect : 

Tulit  punctum  qul  miscuit  utile  dulci,  he  wins  (has  won)  favor  who  combines  (has 
combined)  the  useful  with  the  agreeable.  Hor. 

6.  In  ANIMATED  NARRATIVE,  the  Perfect  usually  narrates  the  leading  events, 
and  the  Imperfect  describes  the  attendant  circumstances : 

Cultum  mutavit,  veste  Medica  utebatur,  epulabatur  more  Pcrsarum,  he 
changed  his  mode  of  life,  used  the  Median  dress,  feasted  in  the  Persian  style. 

1  Literally,  has  recalled,  and  so  remembers,  as  the  result  of  the  act.    The  Latin  pre- 
sents the  completed  act,  the  English  the  result. 

2  As  postquam,  ubi,  ubiprlmum,  ut,  utprlmum,  simul  atque  («c),  etc. 

3  Historical  present;  lit.,  when  he  attends. 

4  And  so  was  then  a  man  of  consular  rank. 

*  This  use  of  the  Latin  Perfect  correspond  B  to  the  Gnomic  Aorist  in  Greek. 


TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE.  261 

Nep.  Se  in  oppida  receperunt  murlsque  se  tenebant,  they  betook  themselves 
into  their  towns  and  kept  themselves  within  their  walls.  Liv. 

NOTE  1.— The  Compound  Tenses  in  the  Passive  often  denote  the  result  of  the  action. 
Thus,  doctus  est  may  mean  either  he  has  "been  instructed^  or  he  is  a  learned  man  (lit., 
an  instructed  man) : 

Fuit  doctus  ex  disciplina  Stoicorum,  he  wax  instructed  in  (lit.,  out  of)  the  learning 
of  the  Stoics.  Cic.  Navis  parata  fuit,  the  vessel  was  ready  (lit.,  was  prepared).  Liv. 

NOTE  2.— For  the  Perfect  in  LETTERS,  see  4=72, 1. 

NOTE  3.— For  the  Historical  Tenses  in  expressions  of  DUTY,  PEOPBIETY,  NECESSITY, 
€tc.,  see  476,  4. 

V.  PLUPEKFECT  INDICATIVE. 

472.  The  Pluperfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as  com- 
pleted at  some  past  time  : 

Pyrrhl  temporibus  jam  Apollo  versus  facere  desierat,  in  the  times  of  Pyr- 
rhus  Apollo  had  already  ceased  to  make  verses*  Cic.  Copias  quas  pro  castrls 
collocaverat,  reduxit,  he  led  back  the  forces  which  he  had  stationed  before  the 
camp.  Caes.  Cuni  esset  Demosthenes,  multl  oratores  clari  fuerunt  et  antea 
fuerant,  wlien  Demosthenes  lived  there  were  many  illustrious  orators^  and  there 
had  been  before.  Cic. 

1.  In  LETTERS,  the  writer  often  adapts  the  tense  to  the  time  of  the  reader, 
using  the  Imperfect  or  Perfect  of  present  actions  and  events,  and  the  Pluper- 
fect of  those  which  are  past : 2 

Nihil  habebam  quod  scriberem;  ad  tuas  omnes  epistulas  rescrlpseram 
pridie,3/ta?<?  (had)  nothing  to  write  ;  I  replied  to  all  your  letters  yesterday. 
Cic.  Prldie  Idus  haec  scrlpsl ;  eo  die 3  apud  Pomponium  eram  cenaturus,4 
I  write  this  on  the  day  before  the  Ides;  I  am  going  to  dine  to-day  with,  Pom- 
ponius.  Cic. 

2.  The  PLUPERFECT  after  cum,  si,  etc.,  is  often  used  of  KEPEATED  ACTIONS, 
GENERAL  TRUTHS,  and  CUSTOMS  : 5 

Si  hostes  deterrere  nequlverant  circumveniebant,  if  they  were  (had  been) 
unable*  to  deter  the  enemy,  they  surrounded  them.-  Sail. 

NOTE  1.— For  the  Pluperfect  in  the  sense  of  the  English  Imperfect,  see  471,  8. 
NOTE  2.— For  the  Historical  Tenses  in  expressions  of  DUTY,  PROPEIETY,  NECESSITY, 
etc.,  see  476,  4. 

1  Observe  that  desierat  represents  the  action  as  already  completed  at  the  time  desig- 
nated. 

2  This  change  is  by  no  means  uniformly  made,  but  is  subject  to  the  pleasure  of  the 
writer.    It  is  most  common  near  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  letters. 

3  Observe  that  the  adverbs  and  the  adverbial  expressions  are  also  adapted  to  the  time 
of  the  reader.    Iferi,  'yesterday,1  becomes  to  the  reader pridie,  'the  day  before '— i.  e., 
the  day  before  tho  -writing  of  the  letter.    In  the  same  way  hodie,  '  to-day,1  'THIS  day,1  be- 
comes to  the  reader  eo  die,  '  THAT  day.1 

4  The  Imperfect  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugation  is  sometimes  thus  used  of  future 
events  which  are  expected  to  happen  before  the  receipt  of  the  letter.    Events  which  will 
be  future  to  the  reader  as  well  as  to  the  writer  must  be  expressed  by  the  Future. 

5  See  the  similar  use  of  the  Perfect,  471,  5. 

6  That  is,  whenever  they  were  unable. 


262  USE  OF  INDICATIVE. 

VI.  FUTURE  PERFECT  INDICATIVE. 

473.  The  Future  Perfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as 
one  which  will  be  completed  at  some  future  time : 

Komam  cum  veiiero,  scrlbam  ad  te,  when  I  shall  "have  reached  Rome,  I  will 
write  to  you.  Cic.  Dum  tu  haec  leges,  ego  illuin  fortasse  conveners,  when 
you  read  this,  I  shall  perhaps  have  already  'met  him.  Cic. 

1.  The  FUTURE  PERFECT  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  complete  accom- 
plishment of  the  work : 

Ego  meuin  officium  praestitero,  I  shall  discharge  my  duty.   Caes. 

2.  The  FUTURE  PERFECT  is  sometimes  found  in  conditional  clauses  where 
we  use  the  Present : 

Si  interpretarl  potuero,  his  verbis  utitur,  if  I  can  (shall  have  been  able 
to)  understand  him,  he  uses  these  words.  Cic. 

VII.  USE  OF  THE  INDICATIVE. 
RULE    XXXVII.— Indicative. 

474.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  treating  of  facts : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world.  Cic.  Nonne 
expulsus  est  patria,  was  he  not  banisJied  from  his  country  ?  Cic.  Hoc  feel 
dum  licuit,  I  did  this  as  long  as  it  was  permitted.  Cic. 

475.  The  Indicative  is  thus  used  in  treating  of  facts — 

I.  In  Principal  Clauses,1  whether  Declarative  as  in  the  first  example 
or  Interrogative  as  in  the  second. 

II.  In  Subordinate  Clauses.     Thus — 

1.  In  Relative  Clauses: 

Dixit  id  quod  dlgnissimum  re  publica  fuit,  he  stated  that  which  was  most 
worthy  of  tlie  republic.  Cic.  Quicquam  bonum  est,  quod  non  eum  qul  id 
possidet  meliorein  facit,  is  anything  good  ivhich  does  not  make  him  better  who 
possesses  it  f  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Belative  Clauses,  see  497;  500;  503;  507,  2,  etc. 

2.  In  Conditional  Clauses: 

Si  haec  civitas  est,  clvis  sum  ego,  if  this  is  a  state,  I  am  a  citizen.  Cic. 
NOTE  1.— For  the  special  uses  of  the  Indicative  in  Conditional  Sentences,  see  508. 
NOTE  2.— For  the  /Subjunctive  in  Conditional  Sentences,  see  509;  51O. 

3.  In  Concessive  Clauses: 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  tamen  nunquam  dicunt,  although  they  understand, 
the^y  never  speak.  Cic. 

NOTE. — For  the  Subjunctive  in  Concessive  Clauses,  see  515. 

1  Including,  of  course,  all  simple  sentences. 


USE  OF  INDICATIVE.  263 

4.  In  Causal  Clauses: 

Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  since  a  thanksgiving  has  been  decreed.  Cic. 
Quia  honore  dignl  habentur,  because  they  are  deemed  worthy  of  honor.  Curt. 

NOTE.— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Causal  Clauses,  see  516;  517. 

6.  In  Temporal  Clauses: 

Cum  quiescunt,  probant,  while  they  are  silent  they  approve.  Cic.  Prius- 
quam  lucet,  adsunt,  they  are  present  before  it  is  light.  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Temporal  Clauses,  see  519;  520;  531. 

476.  SPECIAL  USES. — The  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  where 
our  idiom  would  suggest  the  Subjunctive : 

1.  The  Indicative  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  is  often  so  used  in 
the  historical  tenses,  especially  in  conditional  sentences  (511,  2): 

Haec  condicio  non  accipienda  fuit,  this  condition  should  not  have  been  ao 
cepted.  Cic. 

2.  The  Historical  Tenses  of  the  Indicative,  particularly  the  Pluperfect, 
are  sometimes  used  for  effect,  to  represent  as  an  actual  fact  something 
which  is  shown  by  the  context  never  to  have  become  fully  so : 

Viceramus,  nisi  recepisset  Antonium,  we  should  have,  (lit.,  had)  conquered, 
had  he  not  received  Antony.  Cic.  See  511,  1. 

3.  Pronouns  and  Relative  Adverbs,  made  general  by  being  doubled  or  by 
assuming  the  suffix  cumque  (1ST,  3),  take  the  Indicative: 

Quisquis  est,  is  est  sapiens,  wJioever  he  is,  he  is  wise.  Cic.  H6c  ultimum, 
utcunque  initum  est,  proelium  fait,  this,  however  it  was  commenced,  was  the 
last  battle.  Liv.  Quidquid  oritur,  qualecumque  est,  causam  habet,  whatever 
comes  into  being,  of  whatever  character  it  may  be  (lit.,  is},  it  has  a  cause.  Cic. 

4.  In  expressions  of  Duty,  Propriety,  Necessity,  Ability,  and  the  like, 
the  Latin  often  uses  the  Indicative,  chiefly  in  the  historical  tenses,  in  a 
manner  somewhat  at  variance  with  the  English  idiom : 

Non  suseipl  bellum  oportuit,  the  war  should  not  have  been  undertaken.1 
Liv.  Eum  contumelils  onerasti,  quern  colere  debebas,  you  have  loaded  with 
insults  one  whom  you  should  have  (ought  to  have)  revered.  Cic.  Multos  pos- 
sum bonds  viros  nominare,  I  might  name  (lit.,  /  am  able  to  name}  many  good 
men.  Cic.  Hanc  mecum  poteras  requiescere  noctem,  you  might  rest  (might 
have  rested)  with  me  this  night.  Verg. 

5.  The  Indicative  of  the  verb  sum  is  often  used  with  longum,  aequum, 
acquius,  difficile,  justum,  melius,  par,  utilius,  etc.,  in  such  expressions  as 
longum  est,  '  it  would  be  tedious,'  meliw  erat,  '  it  would  have  been  better ' : 

Longum  est  persequl  utilitates,  it  would  be  tedious  (is  a  long  task)  to  re- 
count the  uses.  Cic.  Melius  fuerat,  promissum  non  esse  servatum,  it  would 
have  been  better  that  the  promise  should  not  have  been  Icept.  Cic. 

1  Literally,  it  was  fitting  or  proper  that  the  war  should  not  be  undertaken. 


264  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SECTION    III. 

GENERAL   VIEW    OF    THE    SUBJUNCTIVE 
AND    ITS    TENSES. 

477.  The  Latin  Subjunctive l  has  two  principal  uses— 

I.  It  may  represent  an  action  as  WILLED  or  DESIKED  : 

Amemus  patriam,  LET  us  LOYE  our  country.  Cic. 

II.  It  may  represent  an  action  as  PROBABLE  or  POSSIBLE  : 

Quaerat  quispiam,  some  one  MAY  INQUIRE.  Cic. 

478.  TENSES  IN  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  do  not  designate  the  time  of 
the  action  so  definitely  as  in  the  Indicative. 

479.  The  PRESENT  SUBJUNCTIVE  in  principal  clauses 2  embraces 
in  a  vague  and  general  manner  both  present  and  future  time: 3 

Amemus  patriam,  let  us  love  our  country  (now  and  ever).  Cio.    Quaerat 
quispiam,  some  one  may  (or  will)  inquire  (at  any  time).  Cic. 

480.  The  IMPERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVE  in  principal  clauses  relates 
sometimes  to  the  past  and  sometimes  to  the  present : 

Crederes  vlctos,  vanquished  you  would  have  tTtougM  them.  Liv.    Utinam 
possem,  would  that  I  were  able  (now).  Cic. 

481.  The  PERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVE  in  principal  clauses  relates 
sometimes  to  the  past,  but  more  frequently  to  the  present  or  fu- 
ture : 

1  The  Latin  Subjunctive,  it  will  be  remembered  (p.  117,  foot-note  4),  contains  the 
forms  and  the  meaning  of  two  kindred  moods,  the  Subjunctive  proper,  and  the  Optative. 
In  Latin,  the  forms  characteristic  of  these  two  moods,  used  without  any  difference  of  mean- 
ing, are  made  to  supplement  each  other.    Thus,  in  the  Present,  the  Optative  forms 
r-ro  found  in  the  First  Conjugation,  and  the  Subjunctive  forms  in  the  Second,  Third,  and 
Fourth.    In  their  origin  they  are  only  special  developments  of  certain  forms  of  the  Pres- 
ent Indicative,  denoting  continued  and  attempted  action.    From  this  idea  of  attempted 
action  was  readily  developed  on  the  one  hand  desire,  will,  as  we  attempt  only  what  we 
desire,  and  on  the  other  hand  probability,  possibility,  as  we  shah*  very  likely  accomplish 
what  we  are  already  attempting.    These  two  meanings,  united  in  one  word,  lie  at  the 
basis  of  all  Subjunctive  constructions  in  Latin.    On  the  origin,  history,  and  use  of  the 
Subjunctive,  see  Delbruck,  '  Conjunctiv  und  Optativ' ;  Curtius, '  Verbum,1  II.,  pp.  55-95; 
Draeger,  II.,  pp.  439-743;  Koby,  II.,  pp.  202-348;  also  a  paper  by  the  author  on  "The 
Development  of  the  Latin   Subjunctive  in  Principal  Clauses,'  Transactions  Am.  Phil. 
Assoc.,  1879. 

2  For  the  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  clauses,  see  490. 

3  The  Present  Subjunctive  in  its  origin  is  closely  related  both  in  form  and  in  meaning 
to  the  Future  Indicative.    Thus,  in  the  Third  and  Fourth  Conjugations,  no  future  forms 
for  the  Indicative  have  been  developed,  but  Subjunctive  and  Optative  forms  supply  their 
place,  as  regam,  audiam  (Subjunctive),  and  reges,  reget,  etc.,  and  audits,  audiet,  etc. 
(Optative). 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  DESIRE.  265 

Fuerit  malus  civis,  lie  may  have  "been  (admit  that  he  was)  a  bad  citizen.  Cic. 
Ne  transierls  1  Iberum,  do  not  cross  the  Eire  (now  or  at  any  time).  Liv. 

482.  The  PLUPERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVE  in  principal  clauses  re- 
lates to  the  past  : 

Utinam  potuissern,  would  that  I  had  been  able.  Cic. 

SECTION    IV. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   IN   PRINCIPAL   CLAUSES. 
RULE  XXXVIII.—  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  Command* 

483.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action 

NOT  AS  REAL,  but  AS  DESIRED : 

Valeant  elves,  MAY  the  citizens  BE  WELL.  Cic.  Amemits  patriam,  LET  us 
LOVE  our  country.  Cic.  A  nobis  diligatur,  LET  HIM  BE  LOVED  by  us.  Cic. 
Scrlbere  ne  pigrere,  DO  not  NEGLECT  to  write.  Cic. 

1.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  often  accompanied  by  utinam,  and  some- 
times, especially  in  the  poets,  by  ut,  si,  o  si : 

Utinam  conata  efficere  possim,  may  I  be  able  to  accomplish  my  endeavors. 
Cic.  Ut  illuin  dl  perdant,  would  that  the  gods  would  destroy  him.  Ter. 

2.  FOECE  OF  TENSES. — The  Present  and  Perfect  imply  that  the  wish  may 
be  fulfilled ;  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  that  it  can  not  be  fulfilled : 

Sint  beat!,  may  they  be  happy.  Cic.  Ne  transierls  Iberum,  do  not  cross  the 
Ebro.  Liv.  Utinam  possem,  utinam  potuissem,  would  that  I  were  able,  would 
that  I  had  been  able.  Cic. 

NOTE.— The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  may  often  be  best  rendered  should,  should 
have,  ought  to  have : 

Hoc  dlceret,  he  should  have  said  this.  Cic.  Mortem  oppetiisses,  you  should  have 
met  death.  Cic. 

3.  NEGATIVES. — "With  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  the  negative  is  vie,  rarely 
non  ;  with  a  connective,  neve,  neu,  rarely  neque : 

Ne  audeant,  let  them  not  dare.  Cic.    Non  recedamus,  let  us  not  recede.  Cic. 

Ames  dicl  pater,  neu  sinas,  etc.,  may  you  love  to  be  called  father,  and  may  you 

not  permit,  etc.  Hor.    Neve  minor  neu  sit  productior,  let  it  be  neither  shorter 

nor  longer.   Hor. 

NOTE.-— Nedum,  '  not  to  say,'  'much  less,'  is  used  with  the  Subjunctive : 

Vix  in  tectis  frigus  vltatur,  nedum  in  marl  sit  facile  abesse  ab  injuria,  the  cold  is 

avoided  with  difficulty  in  our  houses,  much  less  is  it  easy  to  escape  (to  be  absent  from) 

injury  on  the  sea.  Cic. 

4.  The  first  person  of  the  Subjunctive  is  often  found  in  earnest  or  solemn 
AFFIRMATIONS  : 

1  Observe  that  the  Perfect  thus  used  does  not  at  all  differ  in  time  from  the  Present, 
but  that  it  calls  attention  to  the  completion  of  the  action. 


266  POTENTIAL  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Moriar,  si  put6,  may  I  die,  if  I  think.  Cic.  Ne  sim  salvus,  si  scribe,  may  I 
not  l)e  safe,  if  I  write.  Cic.  Sollicitat,  ita  vlvam,  as  I  live,  it  troubles  me.1  Cic. 

5.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  sometimes  used  in  EELATIVE  CLAUSES  : 
Quod  faustum  sit,  regem  create,  elect  a  king,  and  may  it  be  an  auspicious 

event  (may  which  be  auspicious).  Liv.    Senectus,  ad  quam  utinam  pervenia- 
tis,  old  age,  to  which  may  you  attain.  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  in  Subordinate  Clauses,  see  486,  III.,  note, 
with  foot-note. 

6.  Modo,  modo  ne,  may  accompany  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  : 

Modo  Juppiter  adsit,  only  let  Jupiter  Represent.  Verg.  Modo  ne  laudeht, 
only  let  them  not  praise.  Cic. 

484.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  may  be  in  meaning — 

I.  OPTATIVE,  as  in  prayers  and  wishes : 

Sint  beat!,  may  they  be  happy.  Cic.  Dl  bene  vertant,  may  the  gods  cause 
it  to  turn  out  well.  Plaut. 

II.  HORTATIVE,  as  in  exhortations  and  entreaties : 
Consulamus  boms,  let  us  consult  for  the  good.  Cic. 

III.  CONCESSIVE,  as  in  admissions  and  concessions : 

Fuerint  pertinaces,  grant  (or  admit)  that  they  were  obstinate.  Cic. 

IV.  IMPERATIVE,  as  in  mild  commands,  admonitions,  warnings,  etc.,  used 
chiefly  in  prohibitions  : 

Ulum  jocum  ne  sis  aspernatus,  do  not  despise  that  jest.  Cic.  Scrlbere  nS 
pigrere,  do  not  neglect  to  write.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— In  prohibition*,  the  Perfect  tense  is  generally  used : 

Ne  transieris  Iberum,  do  not  cross  the  Ebro.  Liv. 

NOTE  2. — Except  in  prohibitions,  the  Second  Person  Singular  in  the  best  prose  is 
used  almost  exclusively  of  an  indefinite  you,  meaning  one,  any  one: 

Isto  bond  utare,  you  should  use  (i.  e.,  one  should  use)  that  advantage.  Cic. 

Y.  DELIBERATIVE,  as  in  deliberative  questions,  to  ask  what  should  be  : 
Huic  cedamus,  hujus  condiciones  audiamus,  shall  we  yield*  to  him,  shall 
we  listen  to  his  terms  ?  Cic.    Quid  facerem,  what  was  I  to  do?*  Verg. 

RULE  XXXIX.— Potential  Subjunctive. 

485.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action 

NOT  AS  REAL,  but  AS  POSSIBLE  I 

Hie  quaerat  quispiam,  here  some  one  MAY  INQUIRE.  Cic.  Ita  laudem  in- 
venias,  thus  you  WILL  (or  MAY)  OBTAIN  praise.  Ter.  Ita  amlcos  pares,  thus 
YOU  WILL  MAKE  friends.  Ter.  Vix  dicere  ausim,  1  SHOULD  scarcely  DARE  to 

1  Here  ita  vlvam  means,  may  I  so  live  (i.  e.,  may  I  live  only  in  case  this  is  true). 
a  Or,  ought  we  to  yield,  is  it  your  wish  that  we  should  yield  f 
8  Or,  what  should  I  have  done  f 


POTENTIAL   SUBJUNCTIVE.  267 

say.  Liv.  Crederes  victos,  vanquished  you  would  have  thought  them.  Liv. 
Forsitan  quaeratis,1  perhaps  you  may  inquire.  Cic.  Hoc  nemo  dixerit,  no 
one  would  say  this.  Cic.  Quis  dubitet  (=  nemo  dubitat),  who  would  doubt 
(or  who  doubts  =  no  one  doubts)  ?  Cic.  Hoc  quis  f  erre  possit,  who  would 
be  able  to  endure  this  ?  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — In  the  Potential  Subjunctive,  the  Perfect  often  has  nearly  the  same  force  as 
the  Present,  and  the  Imperfect  is  often  used  where  we  should  expect  the  Pluperfect: 
dlceres,  '  you  would  have  said ' ;  crederes,  putdres, 4  you  would  have  thought ' ;  videres, 
cerneres,  '  you  would  have  seen ' : 

Tu  Platonem  laudaveris,  you  WOULD  PEAISE  Plato.  Cic.  Maesti,  crederes  victos, 
redeunt  in  castra,  sad,  vanquished  YOU  WOULD  HAVE  THOUGHT  them,  they  returned  to 
the  camp.  Liv. 

NOTE  2.— On  Tenses,  see  also  478-482. 

NOTE  8. — The  Second  Person  Singular,  especially  of  the  Imperfect,  is  often  used  of  an 
indefinite  you,  meaning  one,  any  one:  crederes,  'you  would  have  thought,'  'anyone 
would  have  thought.1 

486.  In  the  Potential  sense,  the  Subjunctive  is  used — 

I.  In  Declarative  Sentences,  to  express  an  affirmation  modestly,  doubtfully, 
or  conditionally  ;  see  examples. 

NOTE  1. — Thus,  in  the  language  of  politeness  and  modesty,  the  Potential  Subjunctive 
is  often  used  in  verbs  of  wishing  and  thinking:  velim,  'I  should  wish,'  for  void,  'I 
wish' ;  nolim,  '  I  should  be  unwilling' ;  maMm,  'I  should  prefer' : 

Ego  censeam,  /  should  think,  or  I  am  inclined  to  think.  Liv.  Mih!  dari  velim,  1 
should  like  to  ha/ye  it  given  to  me.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— The  Potential  Subjunctive  is  used  in  the  conclusion  of  conditional  sen- 
tences; see  507, 1,  with  foot-note. 

II.  In  Interrogative  Sentences,  to  ask  not  what  is,  but  what  is  likely  to 
be,  what  may  be  or  would  be,  generally  implying  a  negative  answer,  as  in 
the  last  two  examples  under  the  rule. 

NOTE.— The  Subjunctive  with  ut,  with  or  without  the  interrogative  ne,  occurs  in  ques- 
tions expressive  of  impatience  or  surprise : a 

Te  ut  ulla  res  frangat,  how  should  anything  subdue  you  f  Cic.  Egone  ut  mentiar, 
that  I  should  speak  falsely  f  Plaut. 

III.  In  Subordinate  Clauses,  whatever  the  connective,  to  represent  the 
action  as  possible  rather  than  real  : 

Quamquam  epulls  careat  senectus,  though  old  age  may  be  without  its  feasts. 
Cic.  Quoniam  non  possent,  since  they  would  not  be  able.  Caes.  Ubi  res  pos- 
ceret,  whenever  the  case  might  demand.  Liv. 

NOTE.— From  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  and  the  Potential  Subjunctive  in  principal 
clauses  have  been  developed  the  various  uses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  subordinate  clauses.3 

1  After  forsitan  =fors  sit  an,  '  the  chance  may  be  whether,'  4  perhaps,'  the  Sub- 
junctive was  originally  in  an  indirect  question  (539),  but  it  may  be  best  treated  as  Poten- 
tial.   So  also  with  forsan  andfortasse. 

2  Some  grammarians  assume  an  ellipsis  of  a  predicate,  as  credibile  est,  fieri  potest,  etc. 
8  Thus,  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  used  in  final,  conditional,  and  concessive 

clauses ;  the  Potential  Subjunctive  in  clauses  of  result,  and  in  various  others  denoting 


268  IMPERATIVE. 

SECTION    V. 

THE    IMPERATIVE   AND    ITS   TENSES. 

RULE  XL.— Imperative. 

487.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  COMMANDS,  EXHOKTA- 
TIONS,  and  ENTREATIES  : 

Justitiam  cole,  practice  justice.  Cic.  Tu  ne  cede  malls,  do  not  yield  to 
misfortunes.  Verg.  Si  quid  in  te  peecavi,  Ignosce,  if  I  have  sinned  against 
you,  pardon  me.  Cic. 

1.  The  PRESENT  IMPERATIVE  corresponds  to  the  Imperative  in  English : 
Justitiam  cole,  practice  justice.  Cic.    Perge,  Catilina,  go,  CatiUne.  Cic. 

2.  The  FUTURE  IMPERATIVE  corresponds  to  the  imperative  use  of  the  Eng- 
lish Future  with  shall,  or  to  the  Imperative  let,  and  is  used— 

1)  In  COMMANDS  involving  future  rather  than  present  action : 

Eem  penditote,  you  shall  consider  the  subject.  Cic.  Cras  petito,  dabitur, 
ask  to-morrow,  it  shall  be  granted.  Plaut. 

2)  In  LAWS,  ORDERS,  PRECEPTS,  etc.,  especially  in  PROHIBITIONS: 
Consules  nerninl  parento,  the  consuls  shall  be  subject  to  no  one.  Cic.    Salus 

popull  suprema  lex  esto,  the  safety  of  the  people  shall  be  the  supreme  law.  Cic, 

NOTE.— The  general  distinction  between  the  Present  Imperative  and  the  Futw*e  is 
often  disregarded,  especially  in  poetry: J 

Ubi  aciem  videris,  turn  ordines  dissipa,  when  you  shall  see  the  line  of  battle,  then 
scatter  the  ranks.  Liv.  Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  celebratote  illos  dies,  since  a 
thanksgiving  has  been  decreed,  celebrate  those  days.  Cic. 

3.  An  Imperative  clause  may  "be  used  instead  of  a  Conditional  clause : 
Lacesse,  jam  videbis  furentem,  provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him), 

you  will  at  once  see  him  frantic.  Cic. 

4.  The  place  of  the  Imperative  may  be  supplied  by  the  Subjunctive  of  De- 
sire (483),  or  by  the  Future  Indicative : 

Ne  audeant,  let  them  not  dare.  Cic.  Quod  optimum  videbitur,  facies,  you 
^vill  do  what  shall  seem  best.  Cic. 

488.  In  prohibitions  or  negative  commands,  the  negative  ne,  rarely 
wo/1,  accompanies  the  Imperative,  and  if  a  connective  is  required,  neve  or 
neu  is  generally  used,  rarely  neque  : 

Tu  ne  cede  malls,  do  not  yield  to  misfortunes.  Verg.  Hominem  mortuum 
in  urbe  ne  sepelito,  neve  urito,  thou  shalt  not  bury  nor  burn  a  dead  body  in  the 
city.  Cic. 

what  is  likely  to  be.  Moreover,  from  these  two  leading  uses  was  developed  the  idea  of  a 
conceived  or  assumed  action,  which  probably  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  the  other  uses 
of  this  mood,  as  in  causal  and  temporal  clauses,  in  indirect  questions,  and  in  the 
subordinate  clauses  of  the  indirect  discourse. 

1  Thus  the  Future  is  especially  common  in  certain  verbs ;  and,  indeed,  in  some  verbs, 
as  scio,  meminl,  etc.,  it  is  the  only  form  in  common  use. 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES.  269 

489.  Instead  of  ne  with  the  Present  Imperative,  the  best  prose  writers 
generally  use — 

1)  Noll  and  nollte  with  the  Infinitive : 

Nollte  putare,  do  not  think  (be  unwilling  to  think).  Cic. 

2)  Fac  ne  or  cav$,  with  the  Subjunctive : 

Fac  ne  quid  aliud  cures  hoc  tempore,  do  not  attend  to  anything  else  at  this 
time.  Cic.  Cave  facias,  beware  of  doing  it,  or  see  that  you  do  not  do  it.  Cic. 

3)  Ne  with  the  Perfect  Subjunctive,  rarely  with  the  Present ;  see  484, 
IV.,  note  1. 

SECTION    VI. 

MOODS    IN    SUBORDINATE    CLAUSES. 

I.  TENSES  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES. 

490.  In  subordinate  clauses  the  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  con- 
form to  the  following  rule  : 

RULE  XLI.— Sequence  of  Tenses. 

491.  Principal  tenses  depend  upon  principal  tenses; 
historical  upon  historical : 

Nititur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  to  conquer.1  Cic.  Nemo  erit  qui  censeat, 
there  will  be  no  one  who  will  think.1  Cic.  Quaesleras  nonne  putare'm,  you 
had  asked  whether  I  did  not  think.  Cic.  Ut  honore  dlgnus  essem  laboravi, 
I  strove  to  be  worthy  of  honor.  Cic. 

492.  In  accordance  with  this  rule,  the  Subjunctive  dependent  upon 
a  principal  tense,2  present,  future,  future  perfect,  is  put — 

1.  In  the  PKESENT,  to  denote  incomplete  action : 

Quaeritur  cur  dissentiant,  the  question  is  asked  why  they  disagree.  Cic. 
NemO  erit  qui  censeat,  there  will  be  no  one  who  will  think.  Cic? 

NOTE.— Observe  that  in  these  examples  the  action  denoted  by  the  Subjunctive  belongs 
either  to  the  present  time  or  to  the  future. 

2.  In  the  PERFECT,  to  denote  completed  action  : 

Quaeramus  quae  vitia  fuerint,  let  us  inquire  what  faults  there  were.  Cic. 
Kogitabit  me  ub!  fuerim,  he  will  aslo  me  where  I  have  been.  Ter. 

NOTE  1. — In  the  sequence  of  tenses,  the  Perfect  is  occasionally  treated  as  a  prin- 
cipal tense : 2 

Oblitus  es  quid  dixerim,  you  have  for  gotten  what  I  said.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — For  further  illustrations  of  the  sequence  of  tenses,  see  493,  2,  note  2. 

1  The  Present  Subjunctive  generally  denotes  present  time  in  relation  to  the  principal 
verb.    Accordingly,  vincat  depending  upon  the  present,  nltitur,  denotes  present  time, 
vrhile  censeat  depending  upon  the  future,  erit,  denotes  fiiture  time. 

2  For  the  treatment  of  the  Perfect  in  the  sequence  of  tenses,  see  495. 


270  SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES. 

493.  The  Subjunctive  dependent  upon  an  historical  tense,  imperfect, 
historical  perfect,  pluperfect,  is  put — 

1.  In  the  IMPERFECT,  to  denote  incomplete  action: 

Timebam  ne  evemrent  ea,  I  was  fearing  that  those  things  would  take  place 
(i.  e.,  at  some  future  time).  Cic.  Quaesieras  nonne  putarem,  you  had  in- 
quired whether  I  did  not  think  (i.  e.,  at  that  time).  Cic. 

NOTE.— Observe  that  in  these  examples  the  time  of  the  action  denoted  by  the  Sub- 
junctive is  either  the  same  as  that  of  the  principal  verb  or  subsequent  to  it. 

2.  In  the  PLUPERFECT,  to  denote  completed  action  : 

Themistocles,  cum  Graeciam  liberasset,  expulsus  est,  Themistocles  was 

banished,  though  he  had  liberated  Greece.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  Pluperfect  after  an  historical  tense,  like  the  Perfect  after  a  principal 

tense,  may  represent  the  action  as  completed  in  future  time;  see  496,  II. 
NOTE  2.— The  sequence,  of  tenses  may  be  further  illustrated  as  follows  : l 
Nescit  quid  facias,  He,  knows  not  what  you  are  doing. 

Nesciet  quid  facias,  He  will  not  know  what  you  will  'do.* 

Nesciverit  quid  facias,  He  will  foot  have  Jcnown  what  you  will  do. 

Nescit  quid  fecerls,  He  knows  not  what  you  have  done,  or  what  you  did? 

Nesciet  quid  feceris,  He  will  not  know  what  you  will  have  done.* 

Nesciverit  quid  fecerls,  He  will  not  have  known  what  you  will  have  done. 

Nesciebat  quid  faceres,  He  did  not  know  what  you  were  doing.6 

Nescivit  quid  faceres,  He  did  not  know  what  yeu  were  doing.6 

Nesclverat  quid  facerus,  He  had  not  known  wJiat  you  were  doing. 

Nesciebat  quid  fecisses,  He  did  not  know  what  you  had  done. 

Nescivit  quid  fecisses,  He  did  not  know  what  you  had  done. 

Nesclverat  quid  fecisses,          He  had  not  known  what  you  had  done. 

494.  The  periphrastic  forms  in  rus  and  dus  conform  to  the  general 
rule  for  the  sequence  of  tenses : 

Incertum  est  quam  longa  vita  futura  sit,  it  is  uncertain  how  long  life  will 
continue.  Cic.  Incertum  erat  quo  missurl  classem  forent,  it  was  uncertain 
whither  they  would  send  the  fleet.  Liv. 

495.  PECULIARITIES  IN  SEQUENCE. — The  following  peculiarities 
in  the  sequence  of  tenses  deserve  notice  : 

I.  In  the  sequence  of  tenses  the  Latin  Perfect  is  generally  treated  as 
an  historical  tense,  even  when  rendered  with  have,  and  thus  admits  the 
Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  : 

Quoniam  quae  subsidia  haberes  exposul,6  nunc  dlcam,  since  I  have  shown 

1  It  is  not  intended  to  give  all  the  possible  meanings  of  the  Subjunctive  clauses  here 
used,  but  simply  to  illustrate-  the  sequence  of  tenses. 

2  Or,  he  will  not  know  what  you  are  doing.    Thus,  quid  facias  may  represent  the 
direct  question,  quid  fades,  'what  shall  you  do?'  or  quid  facts,  'what  are  you  doing?' 

3  Or,  what  you  were  doing. 

4  Or,  what  you  have  done,  or  what  you  did. 

5  Or,  what  you  would  do.    Nescivit  may  sometimes  be  rendered,  he  has  not  knoicn. 

6  Exposui,  though  best  rendered  by  our  Perfect  Definite  with  have,  is  in  the  Latin 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES.  271 

what  aids  you  have,  I  will  now  speak.  Cic.    Haec  non  ut  vos  excitarcm  locu- 
tus  sum,  I  have  not  spoken  this  to  arouse  (that  I  might  arouse)  you.  Cic. 
NOTE. — For  the  Perfect  as  &  principal  tense,  see  492,  2,  note  1. 

II.  The  Historical  Present  (467,  III.)  is  generally  treated  as  an  historical 
tense,  but  sometimes  as  a  principal  tense : 

Persuadet  Castico  ut  regnum  occuparet,  he  persuaded  Casticus  to  seize  the 
government.  Caes.  Ubil  orant  ut  sib!  parcat,  the  Ubii  implore  him  to  spare 
them.  Caes. 

NOTE. — The  Historical  Present  includes  the  Present  used  of  authors  (467,  3),  the 
Present  with  dwn  (467,  4),  the  Historical  Infinitive  (536, 1),  etc. : 

Chrysippus  disputat  Aethera  esse  eum  quern  homines  Jovem  appellarent,  Chrysippus 
contends  that  he  'whom  men  call  Jupiter  is  Aether.  Cic. 

III.  The  Imperfect  /Subjunctive,  even  when  it  refers  to  present  time,  as 
in  conditional  sentences,  is  generally  treated  as  an  historical  tense,  though 
sometimes  as  a  principal  tense : 

Nisi  ineptum  putarem,  jurarem  me  ea  sentlre  quae  dlcerem,  if  I  did  not 
think  it  improper,  I  would  take  an  oath  that  I  believe  those  things  which  I  say. 
Cic.  Memorare  possem  quibus  in  locls  hostes  populus  Komanus  fuderit,  / 
might  state  in  what  places  the  Koman  people  routed  the  enemy.  Sail. 

IV.  The  Perfect  Infinitive  is  generally  treated  as  an  historical  tense,  but 
the  Present  and  the  Future  Infinitive,  the  Present  and  the  Future  Participle, 
as  also  Gerunds  and  Supines,  share  the  tense  of  the  verb  on  which  they 
depend,  as  they  express  only  relative  time  (537,  550) : 

Satis  videor  docuisse,  hominis  natura  quarito  antelret  animantes,  I  think  I 
have  sufficiently  shown  how  much  the  nature  of  man  surpasses  that  of  the  other 
animals  (lit.,  surpassed  animals).  Cic.  Spero  fore *  ut  contingat,  I  hope  it  will 
happen.  Cic.  Non  speraverat  fore  ut  ad  se  deficerent,  he  had  not  hoped  that 
they  would  revolt  to  him.  Liv.  Mlserunt  Delphos  consultum  quidnam  face- 
rent,  they  sent  to  Delphi  to  ask  what  they  should  do.  Nep. 

V.  Clauses  containing  a  general  truth  usually  conform  to  the  law  for 
the  sequence  of  tenses,  at  variance  with  the  English  idiom : 

Quanta  conscientiae  vis  esset,  ostendit,  he  showed  how  great  is  the  power  of 
conscience.  Cic. 

YI.  Clauses  denoting  consequence  or  result  generally  express  absolute 
time,  and  are  thus  independent  of  the  law  of  sequence.3  They  thus  admit 
the  Present  or  Perfect  after  historical  tenses  : 

Epaminondas  fide  sic  usus  est,  ut  possit  judicari,2  Epaminondas  used  such 

treated  as  the  Historical  Perfect.    The  thought  is  as  follows :  Since  in  the  preceding 
topics  I  set  forth  the  aids  tchicli  you  have,  Iicill  now  speak,  etc. 

1  Literally,  I  Jiope  it  will  oe  that  it  may  happen.    Here  fore  shares  the  tense  of 
sperd,  and  is  accordingly  followed  by  the  Present,  contingat ;  but  below  it  shares  the 
tense  of  sperdverat,  and  is  accordingly  followed  by  the  Imperfect,  deficerent. 

2  This  peculiarity  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  result  of  a  past  action  may  itself  be 


272  SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES. 

•fidelity  that  it  may  be  judged.  Nep.  Adeo  excellebat  Aristides  abstinentia, 
ut  Justus  sit  appellatus,  Aristides  so  excelled  in  self -control,  that  he  has  been 
called  the  Just.  Nep. 

VII.  For  the  sequence  of  tenses  in  the  indirect  discourse,  see  525. 

496.  FUTURE  TIME  IN  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. — When  the  Future  is  used  in 
the  principal  clause,  the  Future  and  Future  Perfect  tenses,  wanting  in  the 
Latin  Subjunctive,  are  supplied  in  the  subordinate  clauses  as  follows : 

I.  The  Future  is  supplied — (1)  after  a  principal  tense  by  the  PRESENT, 
and  (2)  after  an  historical  tense  by  the  IMPERFECT  : 

Omnia  sic  agentur  ut  belluni  sedetur,1  all  things  shall  be  so  managed  that 
the  war  will  be  brought  to  a  close.  Cic.  Loquebantur,  etiam  cum  vellet l  Caesar, 
sese  non  esse  pugnaturos,  they  were  saying  that  they  would  not  fight  even  when 
Caesar  should  wish  it.  Caes. 

II.  The  Future  Perfect  is  supplied — (1)  after  a  principal  tense  by  the 
PERFECT,  and  (2)  after  an  historical  tense  by  the  PLUPERFECT  : 

Kespondet  si  id  sit  factum,  se  nociturum  nemini,  he  replies  that  if  this 
should  be  done  (shall  have  been  done)  he  will  harm  no  one.  Caes.  Apparebat 
regnaturum,  qui  vicisset,  it  was  evident  that  he  would  be  king  who  should  con- 
quer. Liv. 

NOTE  1.— The  Future  and  the  Future  Perfect  tenses  are  often  supplied  in  the  same 
way,  even  when  the  Future  does  not  occur  in  the  principal  clause,  provided  the  idea  of 
future  time  can  be  easily  inferred  from  the  context : 

Yereor  no  laborem  augeam,  I  fear  that  I  shall  increase  the  labor.  Cic.  Quid  dies 
ferat  incertum  est,  what  a  day  will  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic.  Quid  hostes  con- 
silii  caperent,  exspectabant,  they  waited  to  see  what  plan  the  enemy  would  adopt. 
Caes.  Delitui,  dum  vela  dedissent,  I  hid  myself  until  they  should  have  set  sail.  Verg. 

NOTE  2.— When  the  idea  of  future  time  must  be  especially  emphasized  in  the  sub- 
ordinate clause,  the  periphrastic  forms  in  rus  are  used : a 

Incertum  est  quam  longa  vita  futura  sit,  it  is  uncertain  how  long  life  will  continue. 
Cic.  Incertum  erat  quo  missuri  classem  forent,  it  was  uncertain  whitJier  they  would 
send  t7ie  fleet.  Liv. 

NOTE  3.— The  Future  Perfect  is  sometimes  supplied  in  the  Passive  "byfuturus  sim 
tm&futurus  essem  with  the  Perfect  Participle :  a 

Non  dubito  quin  confecta  jam  res  futura  sit,  Ida  not  doubt  that  the  thing  will  have 
been  already  accomplished.  Cic. 

present,  and  may  thus  be  expressed  by  a  principal  tense.  When  the  result  belongs  to 
the  present  time,  the  Present  is  used:  possit  judicdrl,  '  may  be  judged  now1;  when  it 
is  represented  as  completed,  the  Perfect  is  used :  sit  appellatus,  'has  been  called'  (i.  e., 
even  to  the  present  day);  but -when  it  is  represented  as  simultaneous  will  the  action 
on  which  it  depends,  the  Imperfect  is  used  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule  (491). 

1  Sedetur,  referring  to  the  same  time  as  agentur,  and  vellet,  referring  to  the  same 
time  as  esse  pugnaturos,  both  denote  future  time. 

2  Other  traditional  periphrastic  forms,  rarely  used  in  either  voice,  are— for  the  Fu- 
IU'KZ,  futurum  sit  ut  with  the  Present  Subjunctive,  and  futurum  esset  ut  with  the  Im- 
perfect; and  for  the  FUTURE  PERFECT,  futurum  sit  ut  with  the  Perfect,  and  futurum 
esset  ut  with  the  Pluperfect 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE.  273 

II.  SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE. 
RULE  XLH.— Purpose. 

497.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  PURPOSE  :  * 

I.  With  the  relative  qui,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubi,  unde,  etc. : 
Missi  sunt  qui  (=ut  ii)  consulerent  Apollinem,  they  were  sent  TO  CONSULT 

Apollo  (who  should,  or  that  they  should).  Nep.  Missi  sunt  delect!  qiu 
Thermopylas  occuparent,  picked  men  were  sent  TO  TAKE  POSSESSION  OF  Ther- 
mopylae. Nep.  Domum,  ubi  habitaret,  legit,  he  selected  a  house  where  he 
might  dwell  (that  he  might  dwell  in  it).  Cic.  Locum  petit,  unde  (=ut 
inde)  hostem  invadat,  he  seeks  a  position  from  which  he  may  (that  from  it 
he  may)  attack  the  enemy.  Liv. 

II.  With  ut,  ne,  qu5,  quominus : 

Enititur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that  HE  MAY  CONQUER.  Cic.  Punit  nepeccetur, 
he  punishes  that  crime  MAY  not  BE  COMMITTED.  Sen.  Legum  idcirco  servi 
sumus,  ut  liberl  esse  posslmus,  ice  are  servants  of  the  law  for  this  reason, 
that  we  may  be  free.  Cic.  Medico  dare  quo  sit  studiosior,  to  give  to  the  phy- 
sician,  that  (by  this  means)  lie  may  be  more  attentive.  Cic.  Non  recusavit 
quominus  poenam  sublret,  lie  did  not  refuse  to  submit  to  punishment.  Nep. 

1.  Ut  Qrutl  and  ne  are  the  usual  conjunctions  in  clauses  denoting  purpose. 
A  correlative,  idea,  idcirco,  eo,  etc.,  sometimes  precedes,  as  in  the  third  ex- 
ample under  II. 

NOTE.— With  a  connective  ne  becomes  neve,  neu,  rarely  neque;  see  483,  3 : 
Legem  tulit  ne  quis  accusaretur  neve  multaretur,  Tie  proposed  a  law  that  no  one 
should  ~be  accused  or  punished.  Nep. 

2.  Quo,  4  by  which,'  '  that,'  is  sometimes  used  in  clauses  denoting  purpose, 
especially  with  comparatives,  as  in  the  fourth  example  under  II.     Quominus, 
1  by  which  the  less,'  c  that  thus  the  less,'  '  that  not,'  is  simply  quo  with  the 
comparative  minus.    It  is  sometimes  used  after  verbs  of  hindering,  opposing, 
and  the  like,  as  in  the  last  example  under  II. 

NOTE.— Q uo  setius  also  occurs  in  the  sense  ofquominus;  see  Cic.  Inv.,  II.,  45. 

498.  CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE  readily  pass  into   Object  Clauses,* 

1  The  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  is  doubtless  in  origin  a  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  express- 
ing the  desire  or  command  implied  in  the  action  of  the  principal  verb  :  Te  rogO  ut  eum 
jtivcs,  I  ask  you  to  aid  him  (I  ask  you,  so  aid  him).    Here  the  second  clause,  originally 
independent,  contains  the  desire,  wish,  involved  in  rogo.    Yereor  ne  laborem  augeam, 
I  fear  that  I  shall  increase  the  labor  (I  fear,  let  me  not  increase  the  labor).    Praesto 
erit  pontifex,  qui  comitia  habeat,  the  pontiff  will  "be  present  to  hold  the  comitia  (the 
pontiff  will  be  present,  let  him  hold  the  comitia).  Liv.    See  Delbruck,  '  Conjunctiv  und 
Optativ,'  pp.  59-62. 

2  An  Object  Clause  is  one  which  has  become  virtually  the  object  of  a  verb.    Thus,  in 
'opto  ut  id  audidtis,"1  the  clause  ut  id  audidtis  has  become  the  object  of  opto,  *  I  desire.' 

13 


274  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE. 

but  they  still  retain  the  Subjunctive.  Thus  the  Subjunctive  is 
used — 

I.  With  verbs  signifying  DESIRE  and  its  EXPRESSION;  hence  decision, 
decree,  etc. : l 

Opto  ut  id  audiatis,  I  desire  (pray)  that  you  may  hear  this.  Cic.  Ut  mihi 
aedes  aliquas  conduces  volo,  I  wish  that  you  would  hire  a  house  for  me.  Plaut. 
Senatus  censuerat,  utl  Aeduos  defenderet,  the  senate  had  decreed  that  he  should 
defend  the  Aedui.  Caes.  Servls  imperat  ut  f  lliam  defendant,  he  commands 
his  servants  to  defend  his  daughter.  Cic.  Te  hortor  ut  legas,  I  exhort  you  to 
read.  Cic.  Te  rogo  ut  eum  juves,  /  ask  you  to  aid  him.  Cic.  A  rege  peti- 
verunt  ne  inimlcissimum  suuin  secum  haberet,  they  asked  from  the  Icing  that 
he  would  not  keep  his  worst  enemy  with  him.  Nep. 

NOTE.— Verbs  of  DETERMINING,  DECIDING— statuo,  constituO,  decerno,  etc.— -generally 
take  the  Subjunctive  when  a  new  subject  is  introduced,  otherwise  the  Infinitive  (533, 
L,D: 

Constituent,  ut  tribunus  quereretur,  he  had  arranged  that  the  tribune  should  enter 
the  complaint.  Sail.  Senatus  decrevit,  darent  operam  consules,  the  senate  decreed  that 
the  consuls  should  attend  to  it.  Sail.  Manere  decrevit,  he  decided  to  remain.  Nep. 

II.  With  verbs  and  expressions  denoting  EFFORT  (striving  for  a  pur- 
pose, attaining  a  purpose)  or  IMPULSE  (urging  to  effort) : 2 

Contendit  ut  vincat,  he  strives  to  conquer.  Cic.  Curavi  ut  bene  vlverem, 
I  took  care  to  lead  a  good  life.  Sen.  Effecit  ut  imperator  mitteretur,  he  caused 
a  commander  to  be  sent  (attained  his  purpose).  Nep.  Movemur  ut  bom 
slmus,  we  are  influenced  to  be  good.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — Some  verbs  of  ENDEAVORING,  STRIVING,  as  conor,  contendd,  nitor,  studeo, 
and  tentd,  generally  take  the  Infinitive  when  no  new  subject  is  introduced ;  see  533 : 

Locum  oppugnare  contendit,  he  proceeds  to  storm  the  city.  Caes.  Tentabo  de  hoc 
dicere,  I  will  attempt  to  speak  of  this.  Quint. 

NOTE  2. —  Ut  with  the  Subjunctive  sometimes  forms  with/ac&J  or  agd,  rarely  with  est, 
a  circumlocution  for  the  Indicative :  facio  ut  dlcam  =  dico ;  facio  ut  scrlbam  =  scribo : 

Invltus  facio  ut  recorder,  I  unwillingly  recall.  Cic. 

III.  With  verbs  and  expressions  denoting  FEAR,  ANXIETY,  DANGER  :  3 
Timeo",  ut  labores  sustineas,  I  fear  that  you  will  not  endure  the  labor*.* 

Cic.  Time  bam  ne  evenlrent  ea,  I  feared  that  those  things  would  happen.  Cic. 
Vereor  ne  labOrem  augeam,  I  fear  that  I  shall  increase  the  labor.*  Cic.  Pertcu- 
lum  est  ne  ille  te  verbls  obruat,  there  is  danger  that  he  will  overwhelm  you 
with  words.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— By  a  difference  of  idiom,  ut  must  here  be  rendered  by  that  not,  and  ne  by 
that  or  lest.  The  Latin  treats  the  clause  as  a  wish  or  purpose.* 

1  As  opto,  postulo;  censed,  decerno,  statuo,  constituo,  etc.;  volo,  mdlo ;  admoneo, 
moneO,  hortor;  oro,  rogO;  imperO, praecipio,  etc. 

2  As  enltor,  contendo,  studeo;  ciirO,  id  ago,  operam  do,  etc.;  facio,  efficio,  im- 
petro,  consequor,  etc. ;  cogO,  impello,  moved,  etc. 

8  As  metuo,  timed,  vereor;  periculum  est,  cura  est,  etc. 

*  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  manifest  if  we  make  the  subordinate  clause  inde- 


OF  PURPOSE.  275 

NOTE  2.— After  verbs  of  FEARING,  ne  non  is  sometimes  used  for  ut— regularly  60  after 
negative  clauses : 

Vereor  ne  n5n  possit,  I  fear  that  he  will  not  be  able.  Cic. 

NOTE  3.— Verbs  of  FEARING  admit  the  Infinitive  in  the  same  sense  as  in  English: 

Vereor  laudare,  I  fear  (hesitate)  to  praise.1  Cic. 

499.  PECULIARITIES. — Expressions  of  Purpose  present  the  fol- 
lowing peculiarities  : 

1.  Ut  ne,  rarely  ut  n5n,  is  sometimes  used  for  ne : 

Praedixit,  ut  ne  legates  dlmitterent,  he  charged  them  not  to  (that  they 
should  not)  release  the  delegates.  Nep.  Ut  plura  non  dlcam,  not  to  say  more 
(i.  e.,  that  I  may  not).  Cic. 

2.  Ut  is  sometimes  omitted,  especially  after  void,  nolo,  maid,  fatid,  and 
after  verbs  of  DIRECTING,  URGING,  etc.    Ne  is  often  omitted  after  cav'e : 

Tu  velim  sis,  I  desire  tJiat  you  may  be.  Cic.  Fa"c  habeas,  see  (make)  that 
you  have.  Cic.  SenStus  decrgvit  darent  operam-  consults,  the  senate  decreed 
that  the  consuls  should  see  to  it.  Sail.  Cav&  facias,  beware  of  doing  it,  or  see 
that  you  do  not  do  it.  Cic. 

NOTE. — Clauses  with  ut  or  ne  are  sometimes  inserted  parenthetically  in  sentences : 
Amicos,  optimam  vitae,  utita  dicam,a  Buppellecti]em,/riendte,  the  best  treasure  (furni- 
ture), so  to  speak,  of  life.  Cic. 

3.  Clauses  of  Purpose  sometimes  pass  into  Substantive  Clauses,  which, 
like  indeclinable  nouns,  are  used  in  a  variety  of  constructions : 

Per  eurn  stetit  quominus  dlmicaretur,3  it  was  owing  to  him  (stood  through 
him)  that  the  battle  was  not  fought.  Caes.  Void  ut  mihi  responded,3 1  wish 
that  you  would  answer  me.  Cic.  Fecit  pacem  his  condicionibus,  n§  qul  ad- 
ficerentur  exsilio,3  he  made  peace  on  these  terms,  that  none  should  be  punished 
with  exile.  Nep. 

NOTE  1.— For  the  Different  Forms  of  Substantive  Clauses,  see  540, 

NOTE  2.— Clauses  with  quominus  sometimes  lose  the  original  idea  of  Purpose  and 

denote  Result :  * 

Non  dSterret  sapientem  raors  quominus  r£i  publicae  consulat,  death  does  not  deter 

a  wise  man  from  deliberating  for  the  republic.  Cic. 

pendent,  as  it  was  originally :  I  fear,  so  may  you  endure  the  labors,  an  affirmative  wish; 
I  fear,  may  I  not  increase  the  labor,  a  negative  wish;  hence  ne. 

1  Compare  vereor  laudare,  •  I  fear  TO  PRAISE,'  with  vereor  ne  laudem, '  I  fear  THAT 

I  SHALL  PEAI8E.1 

2  The  Subjunctive  in  this  and  similar  clauses  may  be  explained  either  as  a  Subjunc- 
tive of  Purpose  dependent  upon  a  verb  understood,  or  as  a  Subjunctive  of  Desire;  seo 
483. 

8  In  the  first  example,  the  clause  quominus  dlmicaretur  has  become  apparently  the 
subject  of  stetit;  in  the  second,  ut  mihl  respondents,  the  object  of  void;  and  in  the  third, 
ne  qwl  adficerentur  exsilio,  an  appositive  to  condicionibus. 

4  Such  a  transition  from  Purpose,  denoting  an  Intended  Result,  to  a  Simple  Resuli 
Is  easy  and  natural. 


276  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT. 

III.  SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  CLAUSES  OF  RESULT. 
RULE  XUH.— Result. 

500.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  RESULT1 — 

I.  With  the  relative  qui,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ub!,  unde,  cur, 
etc.  : 

Non  is  sura  qul  (=  ut  ego)  his  utar,  I  am  not  such  a  one  as  TO  USE  these 
things.  Cic.  Innocentia  est  adfectiO  talis  animl,  quae  (=  ut  ea)  noceat  iieminl, 
innocence  is  sucJi  a  state  of  mind  as  INJURES  no  one,  or  as  TO  INJURE  no  one.  Cic. 
Neque  quisquam  fuit  ub!  nostrum  jus  obtineremus,  nor  was  there  any  one 
with  whom  (where)  we  could  obtain  our  right.  Cic.  Est  vero  cur  quis  Juno- 
nem  laedere  nolit,  there  is  indeed  a  reason,  why  (so  that)  one  would  be  unwill- 
ing to  offend  Juno.  Ovid. 

II.  With  ut,  ut  non,  quin  : 

Ita  vlxit  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus,  Tie  so  lived  that  HE  WAS  very 
dear  to  the  Athenians.  Nep.  Ita  laudo,  ut  n&n  pertimescam,  I  so  praise  as  not 
TO  FEAR.  Cic.  Ego  in  publicls  causis  ita  sum  versatus  ut  defenderim  multOs, 
I  have  been  so  occupied  in  public  suits  tliat  I  have  defended  many.  Cic.  Nihil 
est  tain  difficile  quin  (ut  non)  investlgarl  possit,  nothing  is  so  difficult  that  it 
may  not  be  investigated.  Ter. 

NOTE  1.— Qul  is  often  preceded  by  is,  tails,  tantus,  or  some  similar  word;  and  ut, 
by  ita,  sic,  tarn,  aded,  tantopere,  or  some  similar  particle ;  see  examples. 

NOTE  2. — In  Plautus  and  Terence  ut  sometimes  accompanies  qul : 

Ita  ut  qui  neget,  so  that  he  refuses.  Ter. 

NOTE  8. — For  the  Subjunctive  denoting  a  result  after  qudminus,  see  499,  3,  note  2. 

501.  CLAUSES  OF  RESULT  readily  pass  into  Substantive  Clauses, 
but  they  still  retain  the  Subjunctive.  Thus  the  Subjunctive  is  used — 

I.  In  SUBJECT  CLAUSES.     Thus — 

1.  With  impersonal  verbs  signifying  it  happens,  remains,  follows,  is  law- 
ful, is  allowed,  is  distant,  is,  etc. : 2 

Fit  ut  quisque  delectetur,  it  happens  that  every  one  is  delighted.  Cic. 
Sequitur  ut  falsum  sit,  it  follows  that  it  is  false.  Cic.  Kestat  ut  doceam,  it 
remains  that  I  should  show.  Cic.  Ex  quo  efficitur  ut  voluptas  non  sit  sum- 
mum  bonunij/Vwft  which  it  follows  that  pleasure  is  not  the  highest  good.  Cic. 

2.  With  predicate  nouns  and  adjectives : 

Mos  est  ut  nolint,  it  is  their  custom  not  to  be  willing  (that  they  are  un- 
willing). Cic.  PrOximum  est,  ut  doceam,  the  next  point  is,  that  I  show.  Cic. 
Non  est  dubium  quin  beneficium  sit,  that  it  is  a  benefit,  is  not  doubtful.  Sen. 

1  The  Subjunctive  of  Result  is  doubtless  in  origin  a  Potential  Subjunctive  :  Non  is 
sum  qul  his  utar,  *  I  am  not  one  who  would  use  (or  is  likely  to  use)  these  things.1 
Hence  this  Subjunctive  takes  the  negative  ncn  (ut  ncri)  like  the  Potential  Subjunctive, 
while  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  takes  the  negative  ne  like  the  Subjunctive  of  Dezire. 

2  As  aecidit,  contingit,  evenit,Jit,  restat,  eequitur,  licet,  abest,  est,  etc. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT.  277 

NOTE.— For  the  Subjunctive  with  ut,  with  or  without  ne,  in  questions  expressive  of 
impatience  or  surprise,  see  486,  II.,  note. 

II.  In  OBJECT  CLAUSES.    Thus — 

1.  In  clauses  introduced  by  ut  after  facio,  efficio,  of  the  action  of  irra- 
tional forces : 

Sol  efficit  ut  omnia  floreant,  the  sun  causes  all  things  to  bloom  (i.  e.,  pro- 
duces that  result).  Cic.  Splendor  vester  facit  ut  peccare  sine  perlculd  n6n 
possltis,  your  conspicuous  position  causes  this  result,  that  you  can  not  err  ivith- 
out peril.  Cic.  See  498,  II. 

2.  In  clauses  introduced  by  quin  after  verbs  of  Doubting  : 

Non  dubitabis  quin  sint  beat!,  you  will  not  doubt  that  they  are  happy.  Cic. 

III.  In  CLAUSES  IN  APPOSITION  with  nouns  or  pronouns : 

Habet  hoc  virtus  ut  delectet,  virtue  has  this  advantage,  that  it  delights. 
Cic.  Est  h6c  vitium,  ut  invidia  gloriae  comes  sit,  there  is  this  fault,  that  envy 
is  the  companion  of  glory.  Nep. 

NOTE.— For  the  different  forms  of  substantive  clauses,  see  54O. 

502.  PECULIAKITIES. — Expressions  of  Result  present  the  fol- 
lowing peculiarities : 

1.  Ut  is  sometimes  omitted — regularly  with  oportet,  generally  with  opus 
est  and  necesse  est : 

Te  oportet  virtus  trahat,  it  is  necessary  that  virtue  should  attract  you.  Cic. 
Causam  habeat  necesse  est,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  have  a  cause.  Cic. 

2.  The  Subjunctive  occurs  with  quam — with  or  without  ut : 
Liberalius  quam  ut  posset,  too  freely  to  be  able  (more  freely  than  so  as  to 

be  able).   Nep.     Imponebat  amplius  quam  ferre  possent,  he  imposed  more 
than  they  were  able  to  bear. 

3.  After  tantum  abest  ut,  denoting  result,  a  second  ut  of  result  some- 
times occurs : 

Philosophia,  tantum  abest  ut  laudetur,  ut  etiam  vituperetur,  so  far  is  it 
from  the  truth  (so  much  is  wanting)  that  philosophy  is  praised,  that  it  is  even 
censured.  Cic. 

503.  In  RELATIVE  CLAUSES,  the  Subjunctive  of  RESULT 
shows  the  following  SPECIAL  CONSTRUCTIONS  : 

I.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  relative  clauses  to  characterize  an 
Indefinite  or  General  Antecedent : 1 

Quid  est  quod  te  delectare  possit,  what  is  there  which  can  delight  you  ? 
Cic.  Nunc  dlcis  aliquid  quod  ad  rem  pertineat,  now  you  state  something  which 
belongs  to  the  subject.  Cic.  Sunt  qul  putent,  there  are  some  who  think.  Cic. 
Nem6  est  qul  non  cupiat,  there  is  no  one  who  does  not  desire.  Cic. 

1  Here  tarn,  tdlis,  or  some  such  word,  is  often  understood. 


278  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT. 

NOTE  1. — Eestrictive  clauses  with  quod,  as  quod  sciam,  'as  far  as  I  know,'  quod 
meminerim,  *  as  far  as  I  remember,'  etc.,  take  the  Subjunctive  : 

Non  ego  te",  quod  sciam,  unquam  ante  hnnc  diem  vidi,  AS  FAB  AS  I  KNOW,  /  have 
never  seen  you  before  this  day.  Plaut. 

NOTE  2. — Quod,  or  a  relative  particle,  ubl,  unde,  quo,  cur,  etc.,  with  the  Subjunctive, 
is  used  after  est,  'there  is  reason ' ;  ncn  est,  nihil  est,  4  there  is  no  reason ' ;  quid  est,  •  what 
reason  is  there  ? '  non  habeO,  nihil  habeo,  '  I  have  no  reason1 : 

Est  quod  gaudeas,  there  is  reason  why  you  should  rejoice,  or  so  that  you  may. 
Plaut.  Non  est  quod  crSdas,  there  is  no  reason  why  you  should  believe.  Sen.  Nihil 
habeO,  quod  incusem  senectdtem,  /  have  no  reason  why  I  should  accuse  old  age.  Cic. 
Quid  est  cur  virtus  ipsa  non  emciat  beatos,  what  reason  is  there  why  virtue  itself 
should  not  make  men  happy  f  Cic. 

NOTE  8.— The  Indicative  is  freely  used  In  relative  clauses  after  indefinite  antecedents : 

1)  In  poetry 1  and  late  prose : 

Sunt  quos  juvat,  there  are  some  whom  it  delights.  Hor. 

2)  Even  in  the  best  prose,  when  the  fact  itself  is  to  be  made  prominent: 

Sunt  qul  nSn  audent  dicere,  there  are  some  who  do  not  dare  to  speak.  Cic.  Multa 
sunt,  quae  dici  possunt,  there  are  many  things  which  may  be  said.  Cic. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  relative  clauses — 

1.  After  unus,  solus,  and  the  like  : 

Sapientia  est  una,  quae  maestitiam  pellat,  wisdom  is  the  only  thing  which 
dispels  sadness  (which  would  dispel).  Cic.  Soil  centum  erant  qul  crearl  p5s- 
sent,  there  were  only  one  "hundred  who  could  be  appointed  (such  that  they  could 
be).  Liv. 

2.  After  dlgnus,  indlgnus,  idoneus,  and  aptus : 

Fabulae  dlgnae  sunt,  quae  legantur,  the  fables  are  worthy  to  be  read  (that 
they  should  be  read).  Cic.  Eufum  Caesar  idoneum  judicaverat  quern  mit- 
teret,  Caesar  had  judged  Ru/us  a  suitable  person  to  send  (whom  he  might 
send).  Caes. 

3.  After  comparatives  with  quam : 

Danma  majora  sunt  quam  quae  (=  ut  ea)  aestimaii  possint,  the  losses  are 
too  great  to  be  estimated  (greater  than  so  that  they  can  be).  Liv. 

504.  Quln*  'who  not/  'that  not/  etc.,  is  often  used 
to  introduce  a  result  after  negatives  and  interrogates 
implying  a  negative.3  Thus — 

1  Especially  in  early  poetry,  as  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

2  Quln  is  a  compound  of  the  relative  qul  and  ne,  and  appears  to  be  used  both  as  an 
indeclinable  relative  pronoun,  who  not,  and  as  a  relative  particle,  by  which  not,  how  not, 
etc.     Some  clauses  with  quln  may  perhaps  be  best  explained  as  indirect  questions 
(529, 1.).    Quln,  meaning  why  not?  often  used  in  independent  clauses,  is  a  compound 
of  the  interrogative  quis  or  qul,  and  ne :  Quln  tu  hocfacis, '  why  do  you  not  do  it  ? '  Liv. 

3  As  nemd,  nullus,  nihil,  quis  f  non  dubito,  non  dubium  est ;  non  multum  dbest, 
paulum  abest,  nihil  abest,  quid  dbest  f  non,  vix,  aegrl  abstineo;  mihl  non  temperO; 
non  retineor;  non,  nihil  praetermitto  ;  facer e  non  possum,  forl  non  potest;  nun- 
quam  with  a  large  class  of  verbs. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT.  279 

1.  Quln  is  often  used  in  the  sense  of  qul  non,  quae  non,  etc.,  as 
after  nemft,  nullus,  nihil,  quis  ? 

Adest  nemo,  quln  videat,  there  is  no  one  present  who  does  not  see.  Cic. 
Nemo  est  quln  audierit,  there  is  no  one  who  has  not  heard.  Cic.  Quis  est 
quln  cernat,  who  is  there  wlio  does  not  perceive  f  Cic.  Nulla  fuit  clvitas  qum 
mitteret,  there  was  no  state  which  did  not  send.  Caes.  Nulla  plctura  fuit 
qum  (—quam  non)  Inspexerit,  there  was  no  painting  which  he  did  not  inspect. 
Cic.  Nullum  internals!  diem,  quln  (=  quo  non  or  ut  eo  non)  aliquid  darem, 
I  allowed  no  day  to  pass  without  giving  something  (on  which  I  would  not  give 
something).  Cic. 

NOTE.— Quln  can  often  be  best  rendered  by  but  or  by  without  or  from  with  a  parti- 
cipial noun  in  -ING:  see  the  last  example  under  1 ;  also  the  last  under  2. 

2.  Quln  is  often  used  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  ut  non : 

N&m6  est  tarn  fortis  quln  perturbetur,  no  one  is  so  brave  as  not  to  be  dis- 
turbed.  Caes.    Nihil  est  tarn  difficile  quln  investlgarl  possit,  nothing  is  so 
difficult  that  it  may  not  be  investigated.   Ter.    Ketinerl  n6n  poterant  quln 
tela  eoicerent,1  they  could  not  be  restrained  from  hurling  their  weapons.  Caes. 
NOTE.—/*  or  id  is  sometimes  expressed  after  quln : 
Nihil  est  quln  id  intereat,  there  is  nothing  which  does  not  perish.  Cic. 

3.  Quln  is  used  in  the  sense  of  ut  non  or  of  ut  in  subject  and 
object  clauses  (501)  : 

1)  Wiihfacere  non  possum,  fieri  non  potest,  etc.,  in  the  sense  of  ut  non: 
Focere  non  possum  qum  lltteras  mittam,  /  can  not  but  send  a  letter.   Cic. 

Efficl  non  potest  quin  eos  oderim,  it  can  not  be  (he  effected)  that  I  should  not 
hate  them.   Cic. 

2)  With  negative  expressions  implying  doubt  and  uncertainty,  in  the 
sense  of  ut : 

Agamemnon  n6n  dubitat  quln  Troja  sit  peritura,  Agamemnon  does  not 
doubt  that  Troy  will  fall  (perish).  Cic.  Non  dubitar!  debet  quln  fuerint 
poetae,  it  ought  not  to  be  doubted  that  there  were  poets.  Cic.  Quis  IgnOrat 
quln  tria  genera  sint,  who  is  ignorant  that  there  are  three  races  f  Cic. 

4.  Quln  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  quominus : a 

Quln  loquar  haec,  nunquam  me  potes  deterrere,  you  can  never  deter  me 
from  saying  this.  Plaut.  Non  deterret  sapientem  mors  quominus  rei  publi- 
cae  consulat,  death  does  not  deter  a  wise  man  from  deliberating  for  the  repub- 
lic. Cic.  Non  recusavit,  quominus  poenam  sublret,  he  did  not  refuse  to  sub- 
mit to  punishment.  Nep.  Neque  recusare  quln  armls  contendant,  and  that 
they  do  not  refuse  to  contend  in  arms.  Caes. 

NOTE. — For  non  quln  in  Causal  Clauses,  see  516,  2. 

1  Pronounced  as  if  written  cojicerent;  see  36,  4,  with  foot-note  1. 

2  As  after  verbs  of  hindering,  refusing,  and  the  like.    Observe  that  in  the  examples 
deterred  and  recusO  are  used  both  with  quln  and  with  quominus.    They  also  admit  the 
Subjunctive  with  ne  or  the  Infinitive ;  see  505,  II, 


280  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

505.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SPECIAL  VERBS. — Some  verbs  admit 
two  or  more  different  constructions.     Thus — 

I.  Dubito  admits — 

1.  Quin,  WITH  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE,  if  it  stands  in  a  negative  sentence ; 
see  504,  3,  2). 

2.  An  INDIRECT  QUESTION  (529,  I.) : 

Non  dubito  quid  putes,  /  do  not  doubt  what  you  think.  Cic.  Dubito  an 
ponam,  I  doubt  whether  I  should  not  place  *  Nep. 

3.  The  ACCUSATIVE  WITH  THE  INFINITIVE  : 

Quis  dubitat  patere  Europam,  who  doubts  that  Europe  is  exposed?  Curt. 

4.  The  simple  INFINITIVE,  when  it  means  to  hesitate  : 

Non  dubitem  dlcere,  I  should  not  hesitate  to  say.  Cic.  Dubitamus  virtutem 
extendere  factls,  do  we  hesitate  to  extend  our  glory  (valor)  by  our  deeds?  Verg. 

II.  Verbs  of  hindering,  opposing,  refusing,  and  the  like,  admit — 

1.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  WITH  ne,  quin,  or  qu5minus : 2 

Impedior  ne  plura  dicam,  I  am  prevented  from  saying  (that  I  may  not  say) 
more.  Cic.  Sententiam  ne  dlceret  recusavit,  he  refused  to  give  an  opinion. 
Cic.  Neque  recusare  quln  armls  contendant,  and  that  they  do  not  refuse  to 
contend  in  arms.  Caes.  Intercludor  dolore  quominus  plura  scrlbam,  I  am 
prevented  by  sorrow  from  writing  more.  Cic. 

2.  The  ACCUSATIVE  WITH  THE  INFINITIVE,  or  the  simple  INFINITIVE  : 
Num  Ignobilitas  sapientem  beatum  esse  prohibebit,  will  obscurity  prevent 

a  wise  man  from  being  happy  f  Cic.    Quae  facere  recusem,  ivhich  I  should 
refuse  to  do.   Hor. 

IV.  MOODS  IN  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

506.  Every  conditional  sentence  consists  of  two  distinct  parts, 
expressed  or  understood — the  Condition  and  the  Conclusion : 

Si  negem,  mentiar,  if  I  should  deny  it,  I  should  speak  falsely.3  Cic. 

RULE  XL1V.— Conditional  Sentences  with  si,  nisi,  ni,  sin. 

507.  Conditional  sentences  with  si,  nisi,  ni,  sin,  take — 
I.  The  INDICATIVE  in  both  clauses  to  assume  the  sup- 
posed case : 

1  That  is,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  I  should  place.    Observe  that  dubito  an 
means  'I  doubt  whether  not'='I  am  inclined  to  think,'  and  dubito  num,  'I  doubt 
whether' :  Dubito  num  debeam,  '  I  doubt  whether  I  ought.'  Plin. 

2  For  the  use  of  quln,  see  504.    Ne  and  quominus  may  follow  either  affirmative* 
or  negatives. 

3  Here  si  negem  is  the  condition,  and  mentiar,  the  conclusion. 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES.  281 

Si  spiritum  ducit,  vivit,  if  he  breathes,  he  is  alive.  Cic.  Si  tot  exempla 
virtutis  non  movent,  nihil  unquam  movebit,  if  so  many  examples  of  valor 
do  not  move  (you),  nothing  will  ever  move  (you}.  Liv. 

II.  The  PKESEOT  or  PERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVE  in  both 
clauses  to  represent  the  supposed  case  as  possible: 

Dies  deficiat,  si  velim  causam  dSfendere,  the  day  would  fail  me,  if  I 
should  wish  to  defend  the  cause.  Cic.  Improbe  feceris,  nisi  monueris,  you 
would  do  wrong,  if  you  should  not  give  warning.  Cic. 

III.  The   IMPERFECT  or  PLUPERFECT   SUBJUNCTIVE  in 
both  clauses  to  represent  the  supposed  case  as  contrary  to 
fact: 

Pluribus  verbls  ad  te  scriberem,  si  res  verba  desiderSret,  /  should  write 
to  you  more  fully  (with  more  words),  if  the  case  required  words.  Cic.  Si 
voluisset,  dlmicasset,  if  he  had  wished,  he  would  have  fought.  Nep. 

1.  Two  clauses  without  any  conjunction  sometimes  have  the  force  of  a 
jconditional  sentence : 

Negat  quis,  nego,  does  any  one  deny,  I  deny.  Ter.  Roges  me,  nihil  re- 
spondeam,  ask  me,  1  shall  make  no  reply.  Cic.  Tu  magnam  partem,  sineret 
dolor,  haberes,  you  would  have  had  a  large  share,  had  grief  permitted  *  Verg. 
Lacesse ;  jam  vidgbis  furentem,  provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him),  you 
ivill  at  once  see  him  frantic.  Cic.2 

2.  A  condition  is  sometimes  introduced  by  the  relative  qui,  quae,  etc. 
=  si  is,  si  quis,  si  qui,  etc. : 

Qui  sScum  loqul  poterit,  sermonem  alterius  nOn  requlret,  if  any  one  (lit., 
he  who)  shall  be  able  to  converse  with  himself,  he  will  not  need  the  conversation 

1  See  510,  note  2. 

2  From  these  examples  it  is  manifest  that  a  conditional  particle  is  not  an  essential  part 
of  a  conditional  sentence.    Originally  the  two  clauses,  the  condition  and  the  conclusion, 
were  independent,  and  the  mood  in  each  was  determined  by  the  ordinary  principles 
which  regulate  the  use  of  moods  in  principal  clauses ;  see  483 ;  485.    Hence  the  Indica- 
tive was  used  in  treating  of  facts,  and  the  Subjunctive  or  Imperative  in  all  other  cases. 
SI,  probably  the  Locative  case  of  a  pronoun,  meaning  (1)  at  that  time  or  in  that  manner, 
and  (2)  at  any  time  or  in  any  manner,  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  mood,  but 
merely  denotes  that  the  conclusion  is  connected  with  the  condition.    Thus :  negat,  negO, 
'he  denies  (i.  e.,  assume  that  he  denies),  I  deny1;  si  negat,  negO,*he  denies  at  some 
time,  then  I  deny  * ;  dies  deficiat,  si  velim,  etc., '  let  me  wish  (Subjunctive  of  Desire)  at 
any  time,  etc.,  then  the  day  would  fail  me.'    The  Subjunctive  in  conditions  is  a  Subjunc- 
tive of  Desire  with  nearly  the  force  of  the  Imperative,  which  may  indeed  be  used  for  it 
when  si  is  omitted,  as  lacesse, *  provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him).'    In  conclusions 
the  Subjunctive  is  generally  potential,  as  dies  deficiat,  *  the  day  would  fail,1  but  some- 
times it  is  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  for  which  the  Imperative  may  be  substituted ;  as, 
per  earn,  si  poterunt,  *  may  I  perish  if  they  shall  be  able  * ;  si  peccavl,  ignosce,  *  if  I  havo 
erred,  pardon  me.1    Bee  Delbruck,  *  Conjunctiv  und  Optativ,'  pp.  70-74;  171-182. 


282  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

of  another.  Cic.  Errat  longg,  qul  cr&dat,  etc.,  Tie  greatly  errs  who  supposes, 
etc.  (i.  e.,  if  any  one  supposes,  he  greatly  errs).  Ter.  Haec  qul  videat, 
nOnne  cogatur  cSnfiterl,  etc.,  if  any  one  should  see  these  things,  would  he  not 
be  compelled  to  admit,  etc.  ?  Cic. 

3.  A  condition  is  sometimes  introduced  by  cum : 

Ea  cum  dixissent,  quid  respondents,  if  (when)  they  had  said  that,  what 
should  you  reply  ?  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  condition  is  sometimes  ironical,  especially  with  nisi  vero,  nisi  forte, 
with  the  Indicative,  and  with  quasi*  quasi  verb,  with  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive: 

Nisi  forte  Insanit,  unless  perhaps  he  is  insane.  Cic.  Quasi  verS  necesse  sit,  as  if 
indeed  it  were  necessary.  Caes. 

NOTE  2.— Ita— si,  l  so— if,1  means  only— if.  Si  quidem, '  if  indeed,1  sometimes  has 
nearly  the  force  of  since : 

HSc  ita  justum  est,  si  est  voluntarium,  this  is  just  only  if  (on  condition  that)  it  u 
voluntary.  Cic.  Antlquissimum  est  genus  poCturum,  si  quidem  Horn  Cms  fuit  ante 
Romam  conditam,  the  class  of  poets  is  very  ancient,  since  Homer  lived  before  the 
founding  of  Rome.  Cic. 

NOTE  S.—Nisi  or  nl,  'if  not,'  is  sometimes  best  rendered  but  or  except: 

Nescio,  nisi  hoc  video,  I  know  not,  but  (except  that)  I  observe  this.  Cic. 

NOTE  4.— Nisi  si  means  except  if,  unless  perhaps,  unless: 

Nisi  si  qul  scripsit,  unless  some  one  has  written.  Cic. 

NOTE  5.— For  si  to  be  rendered  to  see  if,  to  see  whether,  etc.,  see  529, 1,  note  1. 

NOTE  6. — For  quod  «I,  quod  nl,  quod  nisi,  see  453,  6. 

NOTE  7.— The  condition  may  be  variously  supplied,  as  by  a  participle,  by  the  ablative 
absolute,  or  by  the  oblique  case  of  a  noun  : 

N6n  potestis,  voluptate  omnia  dirigentes  (=  si  dlrigitis),  retinere  virtutem,  you 
can  not  retain  your  manhood,  if  you  arrange  all  things  with  reference  to  pleasure. 
Cic.  Rectii  facto  (  =  si  rectefactum  erit),  laus  proponitur,  if  it  is  (shall  be)  well  done, 
praise  is  offered.  Cic.  NemS  sine  spe  (=  nisi  spem  haberet)  so  offerret  ad  mortem, 
no  one  without  a  hope  (if  he  had  not  a  hope)  would  expose  himself  to  death.  Cic. 

NOTE  8.— For  Conditional  Sentences  in  the  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE,  see  527. 

508.  FIRST  FORM. — Conditional  sentences  with  the  In- 
dicative in  both  clauses,  assuming  the  supposed  case  as  real, 
may  base  upon  it  any  statement  which  would  be  admissible 
if  the  supposed  case  were  a  known  fact : 

Si  haec  clvitas  est,  clvis  sum  ego,  if  this  is  a  state,  lam  a  citizen.  Cic.  Si 
n6n  licebat,  non  necesse  erat,  if  it  was  not  lawful,  it  was  not  necessary.  Cic. 
Si  vis,  dab5  tibf  tests s,  if  you  wish,  1  will  furnish  you  witnesses.  Cic.  Plflra 
scrlbara,  si  plus  Otil  habuerO,  /  will  write  more  if  I  shall  have  (shall  have 
had)  more  leisure.  Cic.  DolOrem  si  nOn  potero  frangere,  occultabo,  if  1  shall 
not  be  able  to  overcome  sorrow,  I  shall  conceal  it.  Cic.  Parvl  sunt  forls  arma, 
nisi  est  cOnsilium  doml,  arms  are  of  little  value  abroad,  unless  there  is  wisdom 
at  home.  Cic.  Si  doml  sum,  etc. ;  sin  *  forls  sum,  etc.,  if  I  am  at  home,  etc. ; 
but  if  I  am  abroad,  etc.  Plaut.  Nl  puto,  if  I  do  not  think.  Cic. 

1  Sin  from  si  ne,  'if  not,'  "if  on  the  contrary,1  'but  if,1  properly  introduces  a  condi- 
tion in  contrast  with  another  condition  expressed  or  implied.  Thus,  sin  forls  is  in  con- 
trast with  «i  doml,  and  means  but  if  abroad. 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES.  283 

1.  The  CONDITION  is  generally  introduced,  when  affirmative,  by  «!,  with  or  without 
other  particles,  as  quidem,  modo,  etc.,  and  when  negative,  by  si  non,  nisi,  nl. 

2.  The  TIME  may  be  present,  past,  or  future,  but  it  need  not  be  the  same  in  both 
clauses.    Thus  the  Present  or  the  Future  Perfect  in  the  condition  is  often  followed  by 
the  Future,  as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples.1 

3.  Si  non  and  nisi  are  often  used  without  any  perceptible  difference  of  meaning;  but 
strictly  si  non  introduces  the  negative  condition  on  which  the  conclusion  depends,  while 
nisi  introduces  a  qualification  or  an  exception.    Thus,  in  the  a  ,'cond  example  above,  the 
meaning  is,  if  it  was  not  lawful,  it  follows  that  it  was  not  necessary  ;  while  in  the  fourth 
the  meaning  is,  arms  are  of  little  value  abroad,  except  when  there  is  icisdom  at  home. 

4.  The  CONCLUSION  irrespective  of  the  condition  may  assume  a  considerable  variety 
of  form.    Thus : 

Eedargue  mo  si  mentior,  refute  me  if  I  speak  falsely.  Cic.  Moriar,  m  put6,  may 
I  die,  if  I  do  not  think.  Cic.  Quid  timeam,  si  beatus  futurus  sum,  why  should  I  fear 
if  lam  going  to  be  happy  f  Cic.  SI  quid  habes  certius,  velim  2  scire,  if  you  have  any 
information  (anything  more  certain),  I  should  like  to  know  it.  Cic. 

5.  GENERAL  TRUTHS  may  be  expressed  conditionally— 

1)  By  the  Indicative  in  both  clauses,  as  in  the  sixth  example  under  508. 

2)  By  the  Second  Person  of  the  Subjunctive  used  of  an  indefinite  you  (=  any  one)  in 
the  condition,  with  the  Indicative  in  the  conclusion  : 

Memoria  minuitur,  nisi  earn  exerceas,  the  memory  is  impaired,  if  you  do  not  (one 
does  not)  exercise  it.  Cic.  Nulla  est  excusatid  peccati,  si  amlci  causa  peccaverls,  it  ia 
nt  excuse  for  a  fault,  that  you  have  committed  it  for  the  sake  of  a  friend.  Cic. 

509.  SECOND  FORM. — Conditional  sentences  with  the 
Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses  represent 
the  condition  as  possible: 

Haec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat,  if  your  country 
should  speak  thus  with  you,  ought  she  not  to  obtain  her  request  f  Cic.  Iraprobg 
feceris,  nisi  monueris,  you  ivould  do  wrong,  if  you  should  not  give  warning. 
Cic.  See  also  507,  II. 

NOTE  1.— The  TIME  denoted  by  these  tenses,  the  Present  and  the  Perfect,  is  generally 
either  present  or  future,  and  the  difference  between  the  two  is  that  the  former  regards 
the  action  in  its  progress,  the  latter  in  its  completion.  Thus,  loqudtur,  *  should  speak ' 
(now  or  at  any  future  time) ;  so  of  debeat ;  but  feceris,  though  referring  to  the  same 
time  as  loqudtur,  regards  the  action  as  completed.3 

NOTE  2.— The  Present  Subjunctive  is  occasionally  used  in  conditional  sentences,  even 
when  the  condition  is  in  itself  contrary  to  fact: 

1  A  conditional  sentence  with  the  Future  Perfect  in  the  condition  and  the  Future  in 
the  conclusion,  as  plura  scrlbam,  el  plus  otii  habuero,  corresponds  to  the  Greek  with 
eai>  or  a»  with  the  Aorist  Subjunctive  in  the  condition,  and  the  Future  Indicative  in  the 
conclusion;  as,  ve'os  av  iro^o-p?,  y>}pas  e£eis  evflaAe's,  if  you  will  labor  while  young, you 
icill  have  a  prosperous  old  age. 

a  Observe  that  in  each  of  these  examples  the  mood  in  the  conclusion  is  entirely  in- 
dependent of  the  condition.  Thus,  redargue  is  a  command ;  moriar,  a  prayer,  Subjunc- 
tive of  Desire ;  quid  timeam,  a  deliberative  question  (484,  V.) ;  and  velim,  a  Potential 
Subjunctive  (486,  note  1). 

3  As  the  Present  Subjunctive  in  point  of  time  is  very  closely  related  to  the  Future 
Indicative  in  conditional  sentences,  so  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  is  very  closely  related  to 
the  Future  Perfect  Indicative,  though  it  may  refer  to  past  time. 


284  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

Tu  8i  hie  sis,  aliter  sentias,  if  you  were  I  (if  you  were  in  my  place),  you  would  think 
differently.  Ter. 

NOTE  3.— -When  dependent  upon  an  historical  tense,  the  Present  and  Perfect  are  of 
course  generally  changed  to  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  by  the  law  for  Sequence  of 
Tenses  (490) : 

Metuit  ne,  si  Iret,  retraheretur,  lie  feared  lest,  if  he  should  go,  lie  would  be  brought 
back.  Liv. 

510.  THIRD  FOKM. — Conditional  sentences  with  the  Im- 
perfect or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses  represent 
the  supposed  case  as  contrary  to  fact,  and  simply  state 
what  would  have  been  the  result  if  the  condition  had  been 
fulfilled : 

Sapientia  non  expeteretur,  si  nihil  efficeret,  wisdom  would  not  be  sought  (as 
it  is),  if  it  accomplished  nothing.  Cic.  Si  optima  tenere  possemus,  fraud 
sane  consilio  egeremus,  if  we  icere  able  to  secure  the  highest  good,  we  should 
not  indeed  need  counsel.  Cic.  Si  voluisset,  dimicasset,  if  he  had  wished,  he 
would  have  fought.  Nep.  Nunquam  ablsset,  nisi  sib!  viam  inunlvisset,  he 
would  never  have  gone,  if  he  had  not  prepared  for  himself  a  way.  Cic.  See 
also  507,  III. 

NOTE  1.— Here  the  Imperfect  generally  relates  to  present*  time,  as  in  the  first  and 
second  examples ;  the  Pluperfect  to  past  time,  as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples. 

NOTE  2. — The  Imperfect  sometimes  relates  to  past  time,  especially  when  it  expresses 
a  continued  action,  or  is  accompanied  by  any  word  denoting  past  time : 

Nee,  si  cuperes,  tibi  id  facere  licuisset,  nor  icould  you  have  been  permitted  to  do  it, 
•if  you  had  desired.  Cic.  Num  Opimium,  si  turn  esses,  temerarium  civem  putares, 
would  you  have  thought  Opimius  an  audacious  citizen  if  you  had  lived  at  that  time  ? 
Cic. 

5 1 1 .  A  CONCLUSION  of  the  FIRST  FORM  is  sometimes  combined 
with  a  CONDITION  of  the  SECOND  or  THIRD  FORM.     Thus — 

1.  The  Indicative  is  often  thus  used  in  the  conclusion  (1)  to  denote  a 
general  truth,  and  (2)  to  emphasize  a  fact,  especially  with  a  condition  in- 
troduced by  nisi  or  nl : 2 

Turpis  excusatio  est,  si  quis  fateatur,  etc. ,  it  is  a  base  excuse,  if  one  admits, 
etc.  Cic.  Intrare,  si  possim,  castra  hostlum  void,  I  wish  to  enter  the  camp  of 
the  enemy,  if  lam  able.  Liv.  Certamen  aderat,  m  Fabius  rem  expedlsset,  a 
contest  was  at  hand,  but  Fabius  (lit.,  if  Fabius  had  not}  adjusted  the  affair* 
Liv.  Nee  venl,  nisi  fata  locum  dedissent,  nor  should  I  have  come,  had  not 
the  fates  assigned  the  place  *  Verg. 

1  This  use  of  the  Imperfect  to  denote  present  time  was  developed  from  the  ordinary 
force  of  the  Subjunctive  tenses.    Thus  the  Present  denotes  that  which  is  likely  to  be, 
the  Imperfect  that  which  WAS  likely  to  be,  and  so  by  implication  that  which  is  not 
Compare/t^  in  the  sense  of  was,  but  is  not,  471, 1,  2). 

2  Here  the  condition  merely  introduces  a  qualification  or  an  exception  ;  see  508, 3. 

3  The  force  of  the  Indicative  can  not  be  easily  shown  in  a  translation,  but  the  Latin 
conception  is,  I  have  not  come  without  the  divine  guidance  (expressed  in  the  condition). 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES.  285 

NOTE  1. — The  Future  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  in  the  conclusion  because  of  its 
near  relationship  in  force  to  the  Present  Subjunctive :  * 

SI  mittat,  quid  respondebis,  if  he  should  send,  what  answer  shall  you  give  ?  Lucr. 
Nee  si  cupias,  licebit,  nor,  if  you  should  desire  it,  will  it  be  allowed.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— In  a  negative  conclusion  with  a  negative  condition,  the  verb  possum  is 
generally  in  the  Indicative :  2 

Neque  amicitiam  tuerl  possumus,  nisi  amicos  dlliganius,  nor  sJiould  we  be  able  to 
preserve  friendship,  if  we  should  not  love  our  friends.  Cic. 

NOTE  3.— The  Historical  Tenses  of  verbs  denoting  Duty,  Propriety,  Necessity, 
Ability,  and  the  like,  in  the  conclusion  of  conditional  sentences,  are  generally  in  the  In- 
dicative : 

Quern,  si  ulla  in  to  pietas  esset,  colere  dcbebas,  whom  you  ought  to  have  honored 
(and  would  have  honored),  if  there  were  any  filial  affection  in  you.  Cic.  Vix  castra, 
si  oppugnaretur,  tutari  poterat,  he  was  hardly  able  to  defend  the  camp,  if  he  should 
be  attacked.  Liv.  Deleri  exercitus  potuit,  si  persecutl  victores  essent,  the  army  might 
have  been  destroyed  (and  would  have  been),  if  the  victors  had  pursued.  Liv. 

NOTE  4.— The  Historical  Tenses  of  the  Indicative  of  still  other  verbs  are  sometimes 
similarly  used  when  accompanied  by  paene  orprope  : 

Pons  iter  paene  hostibus  dedit,  m  unus  vir  fuisset,  the  bridge  almost  furnished  a 
passage  to  the  enemy  (and  would  have  furnished  it),  had  tfiere  not  been  one  man.  Liv. 

2.  The  Periphrastic  Forms  in  rus  and  dus  in  the  conclusion  of  condi- 
tional sentences  are  generally  in  the  Indicative : 3 

Quid  si  hostes  veniant,  facturl  estis,  what  shall  you  do  if  the  enemy  should 
come  f  Liv.  Si  quaeratur,  indicandum  est,  if  inquiry  should  be  made^  in- 
formation must  be  given.  Cic.  Eelicturl  agros  erant,  nisi  litteras  mlsisset, 
they  would  have  left 4  their  lands,  had  he  not  sent  a  letter.  Cic.  Quid  futuruin 
fuit,  si  plebs  agitarl  coepta  esset,  ivhat  would  have  been  ihe  result,  if  tTie  ple- 
beians had  begun  to  be  agitated  f  Liv.  Si  vcrum  respondere  velles,  haec  erat 
dicenda,  if  you  wished  to  answer  truly,  this  should  have  been  said.  Cic.  Si 
moratl  essetis,  moriendum  omnibus  fuit,  if  you  had  delayed,  you  must  all 
have  perished.  Liv. 

NOTE.— When  the  Perfect  Indicative  in  the  conclusion  with  .the  Subjunctive  in  the 
condition  is  brought  into  a  construction  which  requires  the  Subjunctive,  the  tense  remains 
unchanged,  irrespective  of  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb: 

Adeo  est  inopia  coactus  ut,  nisi  timuisset,  Galliam  repetlturus  fuerit,6  he  was  so 

1  See  479,  with  foot-note  3.    A  conditional  sentence  with  the  Present  Subjunctive 
in  the  condition,  and  the  Future  Indicative  in  the  conclusion,  corresponds  to  the  Greek 
cd?  with  the  Present  Subjunctive  in  the  condition,  and  the  Future  Indicative  in  the  con- 
clusion: TOUTO  edi>  <rieoirr)Tet  evpTjo-ere,  if  you  examine  this,  you  will  find. 

2  Here,  too,  the  use  of  the  Indicative  grows  out  of  the  relationship  between  the  mean- 
ing of  possum,  denoting  ability,  and  that  of  the  Potential  Subjunctive  denoting  pos- 
sibility. 

3  The  Indicative  is  here  explained  by  the  close  relationship  between  the  ordinary 
meaning  of  the  Subjunctive,  and  that  of  the  forms  in  rus  and  dus  denoting  that  something 
is  about  to  be  done  or  ought  to  be  done. 

*  Lit.,  were  about  to  leave,  and  so  would  have  left,  had  he  not,  etc. 

5  Here  repetiturus  fuerit  is  in  the  Subjunctive,  not  because  it  is  in  a  conditional  sen- 
tence, but  because  it  ia  the  Subjunctive  of  Eesult  with  ut;  but  it  is  in  the  Perfect,  be- 
cause, if  it  were  not  dependent,  the  Perfect  Indicative  would  have  been  used. 


286  CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 

pressed  l>y  want  that,  if  he  had  not  feared,  he  would  have  returned  to  Gaul.  Liv. 
Haud  dubium  fuit,  quin  nisi  firmata  extrema  agminis  fuissent,  ingens  accipienda  clades 
fuerit,  there  was  no  doubt  that,  had  not  the  rear  of  the  line  been  made  strong,  a  great 
disaster  must  have  been  sustained.  Liv.  Quaeris  quid  potuerit  amplius  assequi,  si 
Sclpionis  fuisset  filius,  you  ask  what  more  he  could  have  attained,  if  he  had  been  the 
sonofScipio.  Cic. 

512.  A  CONCLUSION  of  the  THIRD  FORM  (510)  is  sometimes  combined 
with  a  CONDITION  of  the  SECOND  FORM  (509) : 

Si  tecum  loquantur,  quid  responderes,  if  they  should  speak  with  you,  what 
answer  would  you  give  f  Cic. 

RULE  XLV.— Conditional  Clauses  with  dum,  modes  ac  si, 
ut  si,  etc. 

513.  Conditional  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive — 

I.  With  dum,  modo,  dummodo,1  'if  only,'  *  provided  that';  dum 
ne,  modo  ne,  dummodo  ne,  '  if  only  not,'  '  provided  that  not ' : 8 

Manent  ingenia,  modo  permaneat  industria,  mental  poivers  remain,  if  only 
industry  remains.  Cic.  Dum  res  maneant,  verba  fingant,  let  them  make 
words,  if  only  the  facts  remain.  Cic.  Dummodo  repellat  perlculum,  provided 
lie  may  avert  danger.  Cic.  Dum  ne  tibi  videar,  non  laboro,  provided  I  do  not 
seem  so  to  you,  I  do  not  care.  Cic. 

II.  With  ac  si,  ut  si,  quam  si,  quasi,  tanquam,  tanquam  si,  velut, 
velut  si,  '  as  if,'  *  than  if,'  involving  an  ellipsis  of  the  real  conclusion : 

Perinde  habebo,  ac  si  scrlpsisses,  I  shall  regard  it  just  as  if  (i.  e.,  as  I 
should  if)  you  had  written.  Cic.  Jacent,  tanquam  omnino  sine  animo  sintr 
they  lie  as  if  (i.  e.,  as  they  would  lie  if)  they  were  entirely  without  mind.  Cic. 
Quam  si  vlxerit  tecum,  as  if  Tie  had  lived  with  you.  Cic.  Miserior  es,  quam 
si  oculos  non  haberes,  you  are  more  unhappy  than  (you  would  be)  if  you  had 
not  eyes.  Cic.  Crudelitatem,  velut  si  adesset,  horrebant,  they  shuddered  at 
his  cruelty  as  (they  would)  if  he  were  present.  Caes.  Ut  si  in  suam  rem 
aliena  convertant,  as  if  they  should  appropriate  others1  possessions  to  their  own 
use.  Cic.  Tanquam  audiant,  as  if  they  may  hear.  Sen. 

NOTE  1. — In  this  form  of  conditional  sentences,  the  Present  *  or  Imperfect  is  used  of 
present  time,  and  the  Perfect 3  or  Pluperfect  of  past  time ;  see  examples  above. 

1  When  not  used  in  conditions,  these  conjunctions  often  admit  the  Indicative :  Dum 
leges  vigebant,  while  the  laws  were  in  force.  Cic. 

2  This  Subjunctive  is  best  explained  as  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  as  indicated  by  the 
negative  ne  (483,  3).    Thus,  modo  permaneat  industria, '  only  let  industry  remain ' ; 
dum  ne  tibl  videar,  '  let  me  not  meanwhile  seem  so  to  you.'    After  dum  and  dummodo 
the  Subjunctive  may  perhaps  be  explained  as  Potential,  but  the  negative  ne  renders  such 
an  explanation  very  doubtful. 

3  The  English  idiom  would  lead  us  to  expect  only  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect^  as 
under  51O;  but  the  Latin  often  regards  the  condition  as  possible,  and  thus  uses  the 
Present  and  Perfect,  as  under  509. 


CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES.  287 

NOTE  2.— Ceu  and  slcuH  are  sometimes  used  like  dc  «?,  ut  s£,  etc. : 
Ceu  bella  forent,  as  if  there  were  wars.  Verg.    Sicuti  audlri  possent,  as  if  they  could 
le  heard.  Sail. 

V.  MOODS  IN  CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES. 

514.  A  concessive  clause  is  one  which  concedes  or  admits  some- 
thing, generally  introduced  in  English  by  though  or  although : l 

Quamquam  itinere  fessl  erant,  tamen  procSdunt,  although  they  were  iveary 
with  the  journey,  they  still  (yet)  advanced.  Sail. 
NOTE.— The  concessive  particle  is  sometimes  omitted : 
Sed  habeat,  tamen,  etc.,  out  grant  that  he  has  it,  yet,  etc.  Cic. 

RULE  XL VI.— Moods  in  Concessive  Clauses. 

515.  Concessive  clauses  take — 

I.  Generally  the  Indicative  in  the  best  prose,  when 
introduced  by  quamquam : 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  tamen  nunquam  dicunt,  though  they  understand, 
they  never  speak.  Cic.  Quamquam  festlnas,  n5n  est  mora  longa,  though 
you  are  in  haste,  the  delay  is  not  long.  Hor. 

II.  The  Indicative  or  Subjunctive,  when  introduced 
by  etsl,  etiamsl,  tametsl,  or  si,  like  conditional  clauses 
with  si.     Thus — 

1.  The  Indicative  is  used  to  represent  the  supposed  case  as  Sifact: 
Gaudeo,  etsl  nihil  scio  quod  gaudeam,  I  rejoice,  though  I  know  no  reason 

why  I  should  rejoice.    Plaut. 

2.  The  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive,  to  represent  the  supposed  case 
as  possible  : 

Etsl  nihil  habeat  in  se"  gloria,  tamen  virtutem  sequitur,  though  glory 
may  not  possess  anything  in  itself,  yet  it  follows  virtue.  Cic. 

3.  The  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive,  to  represent  the  supposed 
case  as  contrary  to  fact : 

Etiamsl  mors  oppetenda  esset,  domi  mallem,  even  if  death  ought  to  be 
met,  I  should  prefer  to  meet  it  at  home.  Cic. 

III.  The  Subjunctive,  when  introduced  by  licet?  quam- 
vis,  ut,  ne,  cum,  or  the  relative  qul : 

1  Concessive  clauses  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  conditional  clauses  both  in  form 
and  in  use.  Si  optimum  est, '  if  it  is  best,'  is  a  condition ;  etsl  optimum  eat, l  even  if  (or 
though)  it  is  best,'  is  a  concession ;  the  one  assumes  a  supposed  case,  the  other  admits 
it.  The  Subjunctive  in  concessive  clauses  is  in  general  best  explained  in  the  same  way 
as  in  conditional  clauses;  see  507, 1,  foot-note  2. 

a  In  origin  licet  is  simply  the  impersonal  verb  of  the  same  form,  and  the  Subjunctive 


288  CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES. 

Licet  imdeat,  plus  tamen  ratio  valebit,  though  he  may  deride,  reason 
will  yet  avail  more.  Cic.  Non  tu  possis,  quamvis  excellas,  you  would  not 
be  able,  although  you  excel.  Cic.  Ut  desint  vires,  tamen  est  laudanda 
voluntas,  though  the  strength  fails,  still  the  will  should  be  approved.  Ovid. 
Ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est,  though  pain  may  not  be  the 
greatest  evil,  it  is  certainly  an  evil.  Cic.  Cum  domi  divitiae  adfluerent, 
fuere  tamen  elves,  etc.,  though  wealth  abounded  at  home,  there  were  yet 
citizens,  etc.  Sail.  Absolvite  Yerrem,  qui  (cum  is)  se  fateatur  pecunias 
cepisse,  acquit  Verres,  tJiough  he  confesses  (who  may  confess)  that  he  has 
accepted  money.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — Quamquam  takes  the  Subjunctive— 

1)  When  the  thought,  irrespective  of  the  concessive  character  of  the  clause,  requires 
that  mood : 

Quamquam  epulls  careat  senectus,  though  old  age  may  be  'without  its  feasts.  Cic. 

2)  Sometimes,  even  in  the  best  prose,  apparently  without  any  special  reason : 
Quamquam  ne  id  quidem  susplcionem  habuerit,  though  not  even  that  gave  rise  to 

any  suspicion.  Cic. 

3)  In  poetry  and  in  late  prose,  the  Subjunctive  with  quamquam  is  not  uncommon. 
In  Tacitus  it  is  the  prevailing  construction : 

Quamquam  invfcti  essent,  although  they  were  invincible.  Verg.  Quamquam  pleri? 
que  ad  senectam  pervemrent,  although  very  many  reached  old  age.  Tac. 

NOTE  2.— Quamquam  and  etsl  sometimes  have  the  force  of  yet,  but  yet,  and  yet: 

Quamquam  quid  loquor,  and  yet  why  do  I  speak  f  Cic.  Etsl  tibl  assentior,  and  yet 
I  assent  to  you.  Cic. 

NOTE  3. — Quamvis  in  the  best  prose  takes  the  Subjunctive  almost  without  exception, 
generally  also  in  Livy  and  Nepos ;  but  in  poetry  and  in  late  prose  it  often  admits  the 
Indicative : 

Erat  dlgnitate  regia,  quamvis  carebat  nomine,  he  was  of  royal  dignity,  though  he 
was  without  the  name.  Nep. 

NOTE  4.— Qul  and  cum,  used  concessively,  generally  take  the  Indicative  in  Plautus 
and  Terence,  and  sometimes  even  in  classical  prose  : 

Audes  praedicare  id,  domi  te  esse  nunc  qui  hie  ades,  do  you  dare  to  assert  this,  that 
you  are  now  at  home,  although  you  are  here  present  f  Plaut.  Cum  tabulas  emunt, 
tamen  nequeunt,  though  they  purchase  paintings,  they  are  yet  unable.  Sail.  Cum 
Sicilia  vexata  est,  tamen,  though  Sicily  was  disturbed,  yet.  Cic. 

NOTE  5.—  Ut—  sic,  or  ut—ita,  'though— yet'  (lit.,  'as— so'),  involving  comparison 
rather  than  concession,  does  not  require  the  Subjunctive  : 

Ut  a  proelils  quietem  habuerant,  ita  non  cessaverant  ab  opere,  though  (lit,  as)  they 
had  had  rest  from  battles,  yet  (lit.,  so)  tJtey  had  not  ceased  from  work.  Liv. 

NOTE  6. — Quamvis  and  quantumvls,  meaning  'as  much  as  you  please,'  'however 
much,'  may  accompany  licet  with  the  Subjunctive: 

Non  possls  tu,  quantumvls  licet  excellas,  you  icould  not  be  able,  however  much  you 
may  excel.  Cic. 

clause  which  follows,  developed  from  Result  (501, 1.),  is  its  subject.  Thus,  in  licet 
irrldeat  (lit.,  *  that  he  may  deride  is  allowed '),  irrldeat  is  according  to  the  Latin  con- 
ception the  subject  of  licet.  Quam-vls,  compounded  ofquam,  'as,'  and  vis,  'you  wish,' 
means  as  you  wish;  thus,  quamvis  excellas  means  literally  excel  as  you  wish  (i.  e.,  as 
much  as  you  please).  The  Subjunctive  with  quamvis,  ut,  ne,  and  qui,  is  the  Subjunc- 
tive of  Desire;  that  with  cum  was  developed  from  the  temporal  clause;  see  5/81. 


CAUSAL   CLAUSES.  289 

VI.  MOODS  IN  CAUSAL  CLAUSES. 
RULE  XL VII.— Moods  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quando.i 

516.  Causal  clauses  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam, 
quaudo,  generally  take — 

I.  Tlie  INDICATIVE  to  assign  a  reason  positively,  on  one's 
own  authority : 

Quoniam  supplicatiS  decreta  est,  celebratote  illos  dies,  since  a  thanks- 
giving has  been  decreed,  celebrate  those  days.  Cic.  Gaude  quod  spectant  te, 
rejoice  that  (because)  they  behold  you.  Hor. 

II.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  to  assign  a  reason  doiibtfully,  or 
on  another's  authority : a 

Socrates  accusatus  est,  quod  corrumperet  juventutem,  Socrates  was  ac- 
cused, because  (on  the  alleged  ground  that)  he  corrupted  the  youth.  Quint. 
Aristides  nonne  expulsus  est  patria,  quod  Justus  esset,  was  not  Aristides 
banished  because  (on  the  alleged  ground  that)  he  was  just?  Cic. 

1.  By  a  special  construction,  the  verb  introducing  a  reason  on  another's 
authority  is  sometimes  put  in  the  Infinitive,  depending  upon  a  verb  of  saying 
or  thinking  in  the  Subjunctive  : 

Quod  se  bellum  gestures  dlcerent  (=  quod  bellum  gestur!  essent,  ut  dice- 
bant),  because  they  were  about,  as  they  said,  to  wage  war.  Caes. 

NOTE. — In  the  same  way  the  Subjunctive  of  a  verb  of  saying  or  thinking  may  be 
used  in  a  relative  clause  to  introduce  the  sentiment  of  another  person : 

Ementiendd  quae  se  audlsse  dlcerent,  by  reporting  falsely  what  they  had  heard 
(what  they  said  they  had  heard).  Sail. 

2.  NON  Quo  ETC. — Non  quo,  non  quod,  non  quln,  rarely  non  quia,  also 
quam  quod,  etc.,  are  used  with  the  Subjunctive  to  denote  an  alleged  reason  in 
distinction  from  the  true  reason  : 

Non  quo  haberem  quod  scrlberem,  not  because  (that)  I  had  anything  to 
write.  Cic.  Non  quod  doleant,  not  because  they  are  pained.  Cic.  Quia  ne- 

1  Quod  and  quia  are  in  origin  relative  pronouns  in  the  neuter.    Thus :  gaude  quod 
spectant  te, '  rejoice  that  (as  to  that)  they  behold  you.'     Quoniam,  —  quom-jam, 4  when 
now,1  and  quando  —  quam-do  (do  =  die), '  on  which  day,' '  when.'    Do  is  probably  from 
the  same  root  as  dum  ;  see  p.  145,  foot-note  1. 

2  Observe  that  causal  clauses  with  the  Indicative  state  a  fact,  and  at  the  same  time 
present  that  fact  as  a  reason  or  cause,  as  in  the  first  example,  but  that  causal  clauses 
with  the  Subjunctive  simply  assign  a  reason  without  asserting  any  fact.    Thus,  in  the 
examples  under  II.,  quod  corrumperet  juventutem  does  not  state  that  Socrates  cor- 
rupted the  youth,  but  simply  indicates  the  charge  made  against  him ;  nor  does  quod 
)itstus  esset  state  that  Aristides  was  just,  but  simply  indicates  the  alleged  ground  of 
his  banishment.    For  the  development  of  the  Subjunctive  in  causal  clauses,  see  p.  267, 
foot-note  3. 


290  CAUSAL   CLAUSES. 

qulverat  quam  quod  ignoraret,  because  Tie  had  been  unable,  rather  than  because 
he  did  not  know.  Liv. 

NOTE.— Clauses  with  quod  sometimes  stand  at  the  beginning  of  sentences  to  an- 
nounce the  subject  of  remark  : 

Quod  me  Agamemnonem  aemulari  putas,  falleris,  in  thinking  (as  to  the  fact  that 
you  think)  that  1  emulate,  Agamemnon,  you  are  mistaken.  Nep. 

RULE  XL VIII.— Causal   Clauses  with  cum  and  qui. 

517.  Causal  clauses  with  cum  and  qui  generally  take 
the  Subjunctive,  in  writers  of  the  best  period : 

Necesse  est,  cum  sint  dii,  anim  antes  esse,  since  there  are  gods,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  there  should  be  living  beings.  Cic.  Cum  vita  metus  plena  sit, 
since  life  is  full  of  fear.  Cic.  Quae  cum  ita  sint,  perge,  since  these  things 
are  so,  proceed.  Cic.  0  vis  veritatis,  quae  (cum  ea)  se  defendat,  O  the 
force  of  truth,  since  it  defends  itself.  Cic.  0  fortunate  adulescens,  qui 
(cum  tu)  tuae  virtutis  Homerum  praeconem  inveneris,  0  fortunate  youth, 
since  you  (lit.,  loho)  have  obtained  Homer  as  the  herald  of  your  valor.  Cic. 

1.  In  early  Latin,  especially  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  the  Indicative  is  the 
prevailing  mood  in  causal  clauses  with  cum  and  qui,  though  the  Subjunctive 
is  not  uncommon  with  qui : 1 

Quom2  facere  omcium  scis  tuum,  since  you  know  how  to  do  your  duty. 
Plaut.  Quom  hoc  non  possum,  since  I  have  not  this  power.  Ter.  Qui  ad- 
venlstl,  since  you  have  come.  Plaut.  Tuas  qui  virtutes  sciam,  since  1  know 
your  virtues.  Plaut.  Qui  neminem  videam,  since  I  see  no  one.  Ter. 

2.  Clauses  with  either  cum  or  qui  admit  the  Indicative  in  all  writers, 
when  the  statement  is  viewed  as  afact : 

HabeO  senectutl  gratiam,  quae  mih!  sermonis  aviditatem  auxit,  1  cherish 
gratitude  to  old  age,  which  has  increased  my  love  of  conversation.  Cic.  Gratu- 

1  Clauses  with  cum,  whether  causal  or  temporal,  illustrate  the  gradual  extension  of 
the  use  of  the  Subjunctive  in  subordinate  clauses.    Originally  they  took  the  Indicative, 
unless  the  thought  irrespective  of  the  causal  or  temporal  character  of  the  clause  required 
the  Subjunctive.    Thus  the  Ciceronian  sentence,  Necesse  est,  cum  sint  dil,  animantes 
esse,  *  since  there  are  gods,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  living  beings,'  would  in 
early  Latin  have  been,  Necesse  est,  cum  sunt  dil,  animantes  esse,  and  would  have  con- 
tained two  distinct  statements,  viz.,  there  are  gods,  and  it  is  necessary  that  there  should 
be  living  beings.    But  in  time  the  causal  clause  lost  so  much  of  its  original  force  as  a 
separate  statement,  and  became  so  entirely  dependent  upon  the  principal  clause,  as  to  be 
little  more  than  an  adverbial  modifier  of  the  latter,  like  the  Ablative  of  Cause  (413)  in  a 
simple  sentence.    The  causal  clause  then  took  the  Subjunctive,  and  the  sentence  as  a 
whole  made  but  one  distinct  statement,  which  may  be  approximately  rendered,  in  view 
of  (because  of)  the  existence  of  the  gods,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  living 
beings.    In  the  same  way,  temporal  clauses  with  cum  sometimes  became  little  more 
than  adverbial  modifiers  of  the  principal  verb;  see  521,  II.,  1,  with  foot-note,  and  521, 
II.,  2,  with  foot-note.    For  a  special  treatment  of  these  clauses,  see  Hoffmann,  *  Die  Con 
struction  der  lateinischen  Zeitpartikeln,'  and  Lubbert,  '  Die  Syntax  von  Quom.' 

2  See  311, 1,  with  foot-note  4, 


TEMPORAL   CLAUSES.  291 

lor  tibl,  cum  tantum  vales,  I  congratulate  you  that  (in  view  of  the  fact  that) 
you  have  so  great  influence.   Cic. 

3.  When  a  conjunction  accompanies  the  relative,  the  mood  varies  with  the 
conjunction.  Thus — 

1)  The  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  with  cum,  quippe,  ut,  utpote : 

Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so.  Cic.  Quippe  qul  blandiatur, 
since  he  flatters  (as  one  who  flatters).  Cic.  Ut  qul  colonl  essent,  since  they 
were  colonists.  Cic. 

NOTE.— But  the  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  to  give  prominence  to  the  fact.  In 
Sallust  the  Indicative  is  the  regular  construction  after  quippe: 

Quippe  qui  regnum  invaserat,  as  he  had  laid  hold  of  the  kingdom.  Sail. 

2)  The  Indicative  is  generally  used  with  quia,  quoniam : 

Quae  quia  certa  esse  non  possunt,  since  these  things  can  not  be  sure.  Cic. 
Qul  quoniam  intellegi  noluit,  since  he  did  not  wish  to  be  understood.  Cic. 

VII.  MOODS  IN  TEMPOKAL  CLAUSES.  * 
RULE  XLIX.— Temporal  Clauses  with  postquam,  etc. 

518.  In  temporal  clauses  with  postquam^  posteaquam? 
ub\  ut>  simul  atque^  etc.,  <  after,'  4  when,'  '  as  soon  as,' 
the  Indicative  is  used : 

Postquam  vidit,  etc.,  castra  posuit,  lie  pitched  his  camp,  after  he  saw, 
etc.  Caes.  Ubi  certiores  fact!  sunt,  when  they  were  informed.  Caes.  Id 
ut  audlvit,  as  he  heard  this.  Nep.  Postquam  vident,  after  they  saw?  Sail. 
Postquam  nox  aderat,  when  night  was  at  hand.  Sail. 

NOTE  1.— The  t&nse  in  these  clauses  is  generally  the  Perfect  or  the  Historical  Pres- 
ent, but  sometimes  the  Descriptive  Imperfect;  4  see  examples  above;  also  471,  4. 

NOTE  2.— The  Pluperfect  Indicative  is  sometimes  used— 

1)  Especially  to  denote  the  result  of  a  completed  action  : 

Posteaquam  consul  fuerat,  after  h&  had  been  consul.6  Cic.  Ann5  terti5  postquam 
profugerat,  in  the  third  year  after  he  had  fled.  Nep. 

2)  To  denote  repeated  action  :  6 

Ut  quisque  venerat,  solebat,  etc.,  as  each  one  came  (lit.,  had  come),  he  was  wont, 

etc.  Cic. 

NOTE  B.—Postrldie  quam  is  used  like  postquam : 
Postrldio  quam  tii  es  profectus,  on  the  day  after  you  started.  Cic. 
.  1.  In  Livy  and  the  late  historians,  the  Pluperfect  or  Imperfect  Subjunctive 

is  often  used  to  denote  repeated  action : 6 

1  On  Temporal  Clauses,  see  Hoffmann,  *  Die  Construction  der  lateinischen  Zeitparti- 
keln,'  and  Lubbert,  4  Die  Syntax  von  Quom/ 

Or  post  quam  and  posted  quam. 

See  467,  III.,  with  1. 

See  469,  I. 

And  was  accordingly  at  the  time  a  man  of  consular  rank. 

In  this  case  the  Imperfect  Indicative  is  generally  used  in  the  principal  clause,  as  in 
the  example  here  given. 


292  TEMPORAL   CLAUSES. 

Id  ub!  dixisset,  liastam  mittebat,  whenever  lie  had  said  that,  he  hurled  (wag 
wont  to  hurl)  a  spear.  Liv. 

NOTE.— As  a  rare  exception,  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  occur  after 
postquam  or  postedquam : l 

Posteiiquam  aediflcasset  classes,  after  he  had  built  fleets.  Cic. 

2.  When  the  verb  is  in  the  second  person  singular  to  denote  an  indefinite 
subject,  you  =  any  one,  one,  the  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  in  temporal 
clauses: 

Nolunt  ubi  veils,  ub!  noils  cup  hint,  they  are  unwilling  when  you  wish  it  (when 
one  wishes  it),  when  you  are  unwilling  tliey  desire  it.  Ter.  Priusquam  in- 
cipias,  consulto  opus  est,  before  you  begin,  there  is  need  of  deliberation.  Sail. 

RULE  L.— Temporal  Clauses  with  duzn,  etc.2 

519.  I.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum,  donee,  and  quoad, 
in  the  sense  of  WHILE,  AS  LONG-  AS,  take  the  Indicative : 

Haec  feel,  dum  licuit,  I  did  this  while  it  was  allowed.  Cic.  Quoad  vixit, 
as  long  as  he  lived.  Nep.  Dum  leges  vigebant,  as  long  as  the  laws  were  in 
force.  Cic.  Donee  eris  felix,  as  long  as  you  shall  be  prosperous.  Ov. 
Quamdiu  in  provincia  f  uerunt,  as  long  as  they  were  in  the  province.  Cic. 

II.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  in 
the  sense  of  UNTIL,  take — 

1.  The  Indicative,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an 

ACTUAL  FACT  : 

Delibera  hoc,  dura  ego  redeo,  consider  this  until  I  return.  Ter.  Donee 
rediit,  until  he  returned.  Liv.  Quoad  renuntiatum  est,  until  it  icas  (actual- 
ly) announced.  Nep. 

2.  The  Subjunctive,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  some- 
thing DESIRED,  PROPOSED,  Or  CONCEIVED  ! 

Differant,  dum  defervescat  Ira,  let  them  defer  it  till  their  anger  cools 
(i.  e.,  that  it  may  cool).  Cic.  Exspectas  dum  dlcat,  you  are  waiting  till  he 
speaks  (i.  e.,  that  he  may  speak).  Cic.  Ea  continebis  quoad  te  videam, 
you  will  keep  them  till  I  see  you.  Cic. 

NOTE  1. — In  the  poets  and  the  historians,  dum  is  sometimes  used  with  the  Imperfect 
Subjunctive,  and  donee  with  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  like  cum  in  narration  : 3 

Dum  ea  gererentur,  bellum  concltur,  while  these  things  were  in  progress  (were 
done),  a  war  was  commenced.  Liv.  Nihil  trepidabant  donee  ponte  agerentur,  they  did 
not  fear  at  all  while  they  were  driven  on  the  bridge.  Liv.  Donee  missl  essent,  until 
they  had  oeen  sent.  Liv. 

NOTE  2.— Donee,  in  Tacitus,  generally  takes  the  Subjunctive : 

1  But  the  text  in  these  cases  is  somewhat  uncertain. 

a  See  p.  291,  foot-note  1.  3  See  p.  295,  foot-note  1. 


TEMPORAL  CLAUSES.  293 

Knenus  servat  violentiam  cursus,  donee  Oceano  misceatu*,  the  Shine  preserves  the 
vapidity  of  its  current  till  it  mingles  with  the  ocean.  Tac. 

RULE   L.I.—  Temporal  Clauses  with  antequam  and  prius- 


530.  In  temporal  clauses  with  antequam  and  prius- 
quam *  — 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect 
is  put  — 

1.  In  the  Indicative,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an 

ACTUAL  FACT  : 

Priusquam  lucet,  adsunt,  they  are  present  before  it  is  light.  Cic.  Ante- 
quam in  Siciliam  vem,  before  I  came  into  Sicily.  Cic.  Antequam  cogno- 
vero,2  before  I  shall  have  ascertained.  Cic.  Nee  prius  respgxi  quam  veni- 
mus,  nor  did  I  look  back  until  we  arrived.  Verg. 

2.  In  the  Subjunctive*  when  the  action  is  viewed  as 

SOMETHING  DESIKED,  PROPOSED,  Or  CONCEIVED  : 

Antequam  de  re  publica  dlcam,  exponam  consilium,  /  will  set  forth  my 
plan  before  I  (can)  speak  of  the  republic  (i.  e.,  preparatory  to  speaking  of 
the  republic).4  Cic.  Non  prius  duces  dimittunt,  quam  1  sit  concessum,  they 
did  not  dismiss  the  leaders  till  it  was  granted.  Caes.  Priusquam  incipias, 
consulto  opus  est,  before  you  begin  there  is  need  of  deliberation  (i.  e.,  as 
preparatory  to  beginning).5  Sail.  Tempestas  minatur,  antequam  surgat, 
the  tempest  threatens,  before  it  rises.  Sen.  Collem,  priusquam  sentiatur, 
communit,  he  fortified  the  hill  before  it  was  (could  be)  perceived.6  Caes. 

II.  The  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect  are  put  in  the 
Subjunctive  :  7 

1  Often  written  ante  quam  and  prius  quam,  sometimes  with  intervening  words 
between  ante  or  prius  and  quam.    See  also  p.  291,  foot-note  1. 
a  The  Future  is  used  only  in  early  Latin,  as  in  Plautus  and  Cato. 

3  Kemember  that  the  Future  is  supplied  in  the  Subjunctive  by  the  Present  ;  see  496. 

4  Here  the  temporal  clause  involves  purpose  as  well  as  time.    Antequam  dlcam  is 
nearly  equivalent  to  ut  posted  dlcam  :  *  I  will  set  forth  my  views,  that  I  may  after- 
ward speak  of  the  republic.' 

6  Remember  also  that  in  temporal  clauses  the  second  person  singular  with  an  indefi- 
nite subject,  you  —  any  one,  one,  is  generally  in  the  Subjunctive  ;  see  518,  2. 

6  Potential  Subjunctive  ;  see  486,  III. 

7  The  Subjunctive  in  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  tenses  is  not  always  to  be  refer- 
red to  the  same  principle.    Sometimes,  like  the  Subjunctive  after  dum,  it  is  best  ex- 
plained as  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose,  as  in  the  first  example,  and  sometimes  like  the 
Subjunctive  of  the  historical  tenses  after  cum;  see  p.  295,  foot-note  1. 


294  TEMPORAL  CLAUSES. 

Non  prius  egressus  est  quam  rex  eum  in  fidem  reciperet,  he  did  not 
withdraw  until  the  king  took  him  under  his  protection.  Nep.  Priusquam 
peteret  consulatum,  InsSnit,  he  was  insane  before  he  sought  the  consulship. 
Liv.  Prius  visus  est  Caesar,  quam  fama  perferretur,  Caesar  appeared 
before  any  tidings  were  brought.  Caes.  Antequam  urbem  caperent,  before 
they  took  the  city.  Liv.  Priusquam  de  meo  adventu  audire  potuissent,  in 
Macedonian!  perrexi,  before  they  were  able  to  hear  of  my  approach,  I  went 
into  Macedonia.  Cic.  Faucis  ante  diebus,  quam  Syracusae  caperentur,  a 
few  days  before  Syracuse  was  taken.  Liv. 

NOTE  1.— When  the  principal  clause  is  negative  and  contains  an  historical  tense,  the 
temporal  clause  generally  takes  the  Perfect  Indicative,  as  in  the  last  example  under  I.,  1 ; 
but  it  sometimes  takes  the  Subjunctive,  as  in  the  first  example  under  II. 

NOTE  2. — Prldie  quam  takes  the  same  moods  as  priusquam : 

Pridio  quam  scrips!,  the  day  before  I  wrote.  Cic.  Pridie  quam  periret,  somniavtt, 
he  had  a  dream  on  the  day  before  he  died.  Suet. 

NOTE  3.— For  the  Subjunctive  of  the  second  person  with  an  indefinite  subject,  see 
518,  2. 

RULE  L.H.— Temporal  Clauses  with  cum. 

521.  In  temporal  clauses  with  cum l — 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect 
is  put  in  the  Indicative : 

Cum  verba  faciunt,  majores  suds  extollunt,  when  they  speak,  they  extol 
their  ancestors.  Sail.  Cum  quiescunt,  probant,  while  they  are  silent  they 
approve.  Cic.  Libros,  cum  est  otium,  legere  soleo,  when  there  is  leisure, 
I  am  wont  to  read  books.  Cic.  Ad  te  scrlbam,  cum  plus  otil  nactus  ero,  / 
shall  write  to  you  when  I  shall  have  obtained  more  leisure.  Cic.  Omnia  sunt 
incerta  cum  a  jure  discessum  est,  all  things  are  uncertain  when  one  has  de- 
parted from  the  right?  Cic. 

II.  The  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect  are  put — 

1.  In  the  Indicative ,  when  the  temporal  clause  ASSERTS 

AN  HISTORICAL  FACT  I 

Paruit  cum  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary?  Cic.  Non- 
dum  profectus  erat,  cum  haec  gerebantur,  he  had  not  yet  started  when  these 
things  took  place.  Liv.  Turn  cum  res  mSgnas  permulti  Smiserant,  Romae 
fides  concidit,  then,  when  many  had  lost  great  fortunes,  credit  fell  at  Rome. 
Cic.  Cum  quaepiam  cohors  impetum  fecerat,  hostes  refugiebant,  whenever 
any  cohort  made  (had  made)  an  attack,  the  enemy  retreated.  Caes. 

1  See  p.  290,  foot-note  1,  with  the  works  of  Hoffmann  and  Lubbert  there  mentioned. 

"  Discessum  est  is  an  Impersonal  Passive,  a  departure  has  been  made  ;  see  301, 1. 

3  Here  the  temporal  clause  not  only  defines  the  time'of  paruit,  but  also  makes  a 
distinct  and  separate  statement,  viz.,  it  was  necessary ;  see  p.  295,  foot-note  1;  also, 
p.  290,  foot-note  1. 


TEMPORAL  CLAUSES.  295 

2.  In  the  Subjunctive,  when  the  temporal  clause  sim- 
ply DEFINES  THE  TIME  of  the  principal  action  :  * 

Cum  epistulam  complicarem,  tabellarii  venerunt,  while  I  was  folding  the 
letter  (i.  e.,  during  the  act),  the  postmen  came.1  Cic.  Cum  ex  Aegypto  rever- 
teretur,  decessit,  he  died  while  he  was  returning  (during  his  return)  from 
Egypt.  Nep.  Cum  dlmicaret,  occlsus  est,  when  he  engaged  in  battle,  he  was 
slain.  Nep.  Zenonem,  cum  Athenis  essem,  audiebam  frequenter,  I  often 
heard  Zeno  when  I  was  at  Athens.  Cic.  Cum  tridul  viam  perfecisset,  nun- 
tiatuin  est,  etc.,  when  he  had  accomplished  a  journey  of  three  days,  it  was  an- 
nounced, etc.  Caes.  Caesar!  cum  id  nuntiatum  esset,  maturat  ab  urbe 
proficiscl,  when  this  was  (had  been)  announced  to  Caesar,  he  hastened  to  set 
out  from  the  city.  Caes. 

1)  Cum  with  the  force  of  a  relative  after  tempus,  aetds,  and  the  like,  takes— 

(1)  Sometimes  the  Indicative,  to  state  a  fact : 

Fuit  tempus,  cum  homines  vagabantur,  there  was  a  time  when  men  led  a 
wandering  life.  Cic. 

NOTE. — Cum  is  sometimes  thus  used  without  tempus,  etc. : 

Fuit  cum  hoc  did  poterat,  there  was  a  time  when  this  could  be  said.  Lir. 

(2)  Generally  the  Subjunctive,  to  characterize  the  period: a 

Id  saeculum  cum  plena  Graecia  poetarum  esset,  that  age  when  (such  that) 
Greece  was  full  of  poets.  Cic.  Erit  tempus,  cum  deslderes,  the  time  will  come, 
when  you  will  desire.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— Cum  is  sometimes  thus  used  without  tempus,  etc. : 

Fuit  cum  arbitrarer,  there  was  a  time  when  I  tJiought.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — Meminl  cum,  *  I  remember  when,'  generally  takes  the  Indicative,  but  au- 
dio cum,  video  cum,  and  animadvertO  cum,  generally  the  Subjunctive  : 

Memini  cum  mihi  desipere  videbare,  /  remember  when  you  seemed  to  me  to  be  un- 
wise. Cic.  Audivi  cum  diceret,  I  heard  him  say  (lit.,  when  lie  said).  Cic. 

2)  Cum,  meaning/rom  the  time  when,  since,  takes  the  Indicative : 
Centum  annl  sunt,  cum  dictator  fuit,  it  is  one  hundred  years  since  he  was 

dictator.   Cic. 

NOTE  l.—Cum  .  .  .  turn,  in  the  sense  of  'not  only  .  .  .  but  also,'  'both  .  .  .  and,1 
generally  takes  the  Indicative  in  both  clauses,  but  in  the  sense  of 4  though  .  .  .  yet?  the 
Subjunctive  in  the  first  clause  and  the  Indicative  in  the  second : 

Cum  antea  distinebar,  turn  hoc  tempore  distineor,  not  only  was  I  occupied  before, 

1  In  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  tenses  the  choice  of  mood  often  depends  not  so 
much  upon  the  nature  of  the  thought,  as  upon  the  intention  and  feeling  of  the  writer  at 
the  moment.    If  he  wishes  to  assert  that  the  action  of  the  temporal  clause  is  an  histori- 
cal fact,  he  uses  the  Indicative;  but  if  he  introduces  it  for  the  sole  purpose  of  defining 
the  time  of  the  principal  action,  he  uses  the  Subjunctive.    Thus,  cum  epistulam  com- 
plicarem does  not  assert  that  I  folded  the  letter,  but,  assuming  that  as  admitted,  it 
makes  use  of  it  in  defining  the  time  of  venerunt.    See  also  foot-note  under  1  above ;  also 
p.  290,  foot-note  1. 

2  Like  the  Subjunctive  in  relative  clauses  after  indefinite  antecedents ;  see  503, 1. 


296  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

but  I  am  also  occupied  now.  Cic.    Quaecum  sint  gravia,  tuin  illud  acerbissimum  cst^ 
though  these  things  are  severe,  that  is  the  most  grievous.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — For  cum  in  Causal  clauses,  see  517. 

NOTE  3.— For  cum  in  Concessive  clauses,  see  515,  III. 

VIII.  INDIEECT  DISCOURSE — Ordtio  Obllqua. 
Moods  and  Tenses  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

522.  When  a  writer  or  speaker  expresses  thoughts,  whether  his 
own  or  those  of  another,  in  any  other  form  than  in  the  original 
words  of  the  author,  he  is  said  to  use  the  Indirect  Discourse — Ord- 
tio OUlqua :  * 

Platonem  ferunt  in  Italiam  venisse,  they  say  that  Plato  came  into  Italy. 
Cic.  Respondeo  te  dolOrem  ferre  moderate,  I  reply  that  you  bear  the  affliction 
with  moderation.  Cic.  Utilem  arbitror  esse  scieutiam,  I  think  tliat  fawiolcdge 
is  useful.  Cic. 

1.  In  distinction  from  the  INDIKECT  DISCOUKSE — Omtio  Obliqiia,  the  original 
words  of  the  author  are  said  to  be  in  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE—  Ordtid  Recta. 

2.  Words  quoted  without  change  belong  to  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE  : 

Rex  '  duumviros '  inquit '  secundum  legem  facie,'  the  Icing  said,  c  1 appoint 
duumvirs  according  to  law?  Liv. 

RULE  LIU.— Moods  in  Principal  Clauses. 

523.  The  principal  clauses  of  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE 
on  becoming  INDIRECT  take  the  Infinitive  or  Subjunctive 
as  follows : 

I.  "When  DECLARATIVE,  they  take  the  Infinitive  with  a 
Subject  Accusative. 

Dicebat  animos  esse  divlnos,  lie  was  wont  to  say  that  souls  are  divine. 
Cic.  Platonem  Tarentum  venisse  reperio,  I  find  that  Plato  came  to  Taren- 
turn.  Cic.  Cato  mirar!  se  aiebat,  Cato  ivas  wont  to  say  that  he  wondered. 
Cic.  Hippias  gloriatus  est,  annulum  se  sua  manu  confecisse,2  Hippias 
boasted  that  he  had  made  the  ring  with  his  own  hand.  Cic. 

NOTE. — The  verb  on  which  the  Infinitive  depends  is  often  omitted,  or  only  implied  in 
some  preceding  verb  or  expression ;  especially  after  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose : 

1  Thus,  in  the  first  example,  Platonem  in  Italiam  venisse  is  in  the  indirect  dis- 
course ;  in  the  direct,  i.  e.,  in  the  original  words  of  those  who  made  the  statement,  it 
would  be :  Plato  in  Italiam  vlnit. 

2  In  the  direct  discourse  these  examples  would  read— (1)  animl  sunt  dlmnl,  (2) 
Plato  Tarentum  venU,  (3)  mtror,  and  (4)  annulum  med  manu  confecl.    Observe  that 
the  pronominal  subjects  implied  in  miror  and  confecl  are  expressed  with  the  Infinitive, 
as  'imrarl  se,  se  confecisse.    But  the  subject  is  sometimes  omitted  when  it  can  be  read- 
ily supplied ;  see  second  example  under  II.,  2,  below. 


INDIRECT  DISCO  URSK  297 

Pythia  praecepit  ut  Miltiadem  imperatorem  sumerent;  incepta  prospera  futura, 
Pythia  commanded  that  they  should  take  Miltiades  as  their  commander,  (telling 
them)  that  their  efforts  would  be  successful.  Nep. 

II.  When  INTERROGATIVE,  they  take — 

1.  Generally  the  Subjunctive: 

Ad  postulata  Caesaris  respondit,  quid  sibi  vellet,  cur  venlret,1  to  the 
demands  of  Caesar  he  replied,  what  did  he  wish,  why  did  he  come  ?  Caes. 

NOTE.— Deliberative  questions  retain  the  Subjunctive  from  the  direct  discourse: 
In  spem  venerat  se  posse,  etc. ;  cur  fortunam  periclitaretur,1  he  hoped  (had  come 
into  hope)  that  lie  was  able,  etc. ;  why  should  he  try  fortune  ?  Caes. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Infinitive  with  a  Subject  Accusative, 
as  in  rhetorical  questions : 2 

Docebant  rem  esse  testimonio,  etc. ;  quid  esse  levius,  etc.,  they  showed 
that  the  fact  was  a  proof  (for  a  proof),  etc. ;  what  was  more  inconsiderate, 
etc.  ?  Caes.  Respondit,  num  memoriam  deponere  posse,3  he  replied,  could 
he  lay  aside  the  recollection  ?  Caes. 

III.  When  IMPERATIVE,*  they  take  the  Subjunctive : 

Scrlbit  Labieno  cum  legione  veniat,  he  writes  to  Ldbienus  to  come  (that 
he  should  come)  with  a  legion.  Caes.  Redditur  responsum,  castrls  se 
tenerent,  the  reply  was  returned  that  they  should  keep  themselves  in  camp. 
Liv.  Milites  certiores  facit,  se  reficerent,  he  directed  the  soldiers  to  refresh 
themselves.  Caes.  Orabant  ut  sibi  auxilium  ferret,  they  prayed  that  he 
would  bring  them  help.  Caes.  Nuntius  venit,  ne  dubitaret,  a  message  came 
that  he  should  not  hesitate.  Nep.  Cohortatus  est,  ne  perturbarentur,5  he 
exhorted  them  not  to  be  alarmed.  Caes. 

NOTE.— An  affirmative  command  takes  the  Subjunctive  without  ut,  except  after  verbs 
of  wishing  and  asking,  but  a  negative  command  takes  the  Subjunctive  with  ne;  see  ex- 
amples. 

1  In  the  direct  discourse  these  examples  would  read— (1)  quid  tiblvlsf  cur  venlsf 
and  (2)  cur  perlcliter  f 

3  A  question  used  for  rhetorical  effect  in  place  of  an  assertion  is  called  a  Rhetorical 
Question,  as  num  pote&t, '  can  he  ? '  =  non  potest, '  he  can  not 1 ;  quid  est  turpius,  *  what 
is  baser? '  =  nihil  est  turpim,  *  nothing  is  baser.1  Here  belong  many  questions  which  in 
the  direct  form  have  the  verb  in  the  first  or  in  the  third  person.  As  such  questions  are 
equivalent  to  declarative  sentences,  they  take  the  same  construction,  the  Infinitive  with 
its  subject. 

3  Direct  discourse— (1)  quid  est  levius  =  nihil  est  levius,  and  (2)  num  memoriam 
deponere  possum  =  memoriam  deponere  non  possum. 

4  Imperative  sentences  include  those  sentences  which  take  the  Subjunctive  of 'De- 
sire; see  484. 

5  In  the  direct  discourse  these  examples  would  read— (1)  cum  legione  venl,  (2)  cas- 
trls  vos  tenete,  (3)  vos  reficite,  (4)  nobia  auxilium  fer,  (5)  noil  dubitdre,  and  (6)  ni 
perturbatl  sltis. 

14 


298  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE 

RULE  LIV.— Moods  in  Subordinate  Clauses. 

524.  The  subordinate  clauses  of  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE 
on  becoming  INDIRECT  take  the  Subjunctive : 

Respondit  se  id  quod  in  Nerviis  fecisset  facturum,1  he  replied  that  he 
would  do  what  he  had  done  in  the  case  of  the  Nervii.  Caes.  Hippias  gloria- 
tus  est,  annulum  quern  haberet  se  sua  manu  confecisse,2  Hippias  boasted 
that  he  had  made  with  his  own  hand  the  ring  which  he  wore.  Cic. 

1.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  is  sometimes  used.    Thus — 

1)  In  clauses  introduced  by  the  relative  pronoun,  or  by  relative  adverbs, 
ubi,  untie,  qudre,  etc.,  when  they  have  the  force  of  principal  clauses  (453) : 

Ad  eum  defertur,  esse  clvem  Romanum  qul  quereretur,  quem  (=  et  eum) 
asservatum  esse,  it  was  reported  to  him  that  there  was  a  Roman  citizen  who 
made  a  complaint,  and  that  he  had  been  placed  under  guard.  Cic.  Te  suspi- 
cor  eisdem,  quibus  me  ipsum,  commoveri,  I  suspect  that  you  are  moved  by  tlie 
same  things  as  L  Cic. 

2)  In  clauses  introduced  by  cum,  quam,  quamquam,  quia,  and  some  other 
conjunctions,  especially  in  Livy  and  Tacitus : 

Num  putatis,  dixisse  Antonium  minacius  quam  facturum  fuisse,  do  you 
think  Antony  spoke  more  threateningly  than  he  would  have  acted?  Cic.  Dl- 
cit,  se  moenibus  inclusos  tenere  eos,  quia  per  agros  vagari,  he  says  that  Tie 
keeps  them  shut  up  within  the  walls,  because  (otherwise)  they  would  wander 
through  the  fields.  Liv.  See  also  535, 1.,  5  and  6. 

2.  The  Indicative  is  used — 

1)  In  parenthetical  and  explanatory  clauses  introduced  into  the  Indirect 
Discourse  without  strictly  forming  a  part  of  it : 

Referunt  silvam  esse,  quae  appellatur  Bacenis,3  they  report  that  there  is  a 
forest  which  is  called  Bacenis.  Caes.  Audio  Gellium  philosophos  qul  tune 
erant3  convocasse,  I  hear  that  Gellius  called  together  the  philosophers  of  that 
day  (lit.,  who  then  were).  Cic. 

2)  Sometimes  in  clauses  not  parenthetical,  to  give  prominence  to  the  fact 
stated,  especially  in  relative  and  temporal  clauses : 

Certior  factus  est  ex  ea  parte  vlci,  quam  Gallls  concesserat,  omnes  disces- 
sisse,  he  was  informed  that  all  had  withdrawn  from  that  part  of  the  village 
which  he  had  assigned  to  the  Gauls.  Caes.  Dlcunt  ilium  diem  clarissimum 
fuisse  cum  domum  reductus  est  a  patribus,  they  say  that  the  day  when  Tie  was 
conducted  home  by  the  fathers  was  the  most  illustrious.  Cic. 

525.  TENSES  IN  THE  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  generally  conform 
to  the  ordinary  rules  for  the  use  of  tenses  in  the  Subjunctive  and 
Infinitive ;  *  but  notice  the  following  special  points : 

^  Direct,  faciam  id  quod  in  Nervilsfecl. 
2  Direct,  annulum  quem  Tiabeo  med  manu  confecl. 

8  These  clauses,  quae  appelldtur  Bacenis  and  qul  tune  erant,  are  not  strictly  parts 
of  the  general  report,  but  explanations  added  by  the  narrator. 
*  See  490-496  and  537. 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE.  299 

1.  The  Present  and  Perfect  may  be  used  even  after  an  historical  tense, 
to  impart  a  more  lively  effect  to  the  narrative : 

Caesar  respondit,  si  obsides  sib!  dentur,  sese  pacem  esse  facturum,  Caesar 
replied,  that  if  hostages  should  be  given  him,  he  would  makepeace.  Caes.  Ex- 
itus  fait  orationis,  neque  ullos  vaeare  agros,  qui  dan  possint,  the  close  of  the 
oration  was,  that  there  were  (are)  not  any  lands  unoccupied  which  could  (can) 
le  given.  Caes. 

2.  The  Future  Perfect  in  a  subordinate  clause  of  the  direct  discourse 
Is  changed  in  the  indirect  into  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  after  a  principal 
tense,  and  into  the  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  after  an  historical  tense : 

Agunt  ut  dimicent ;  ibl  imperium  fore,  unde  victoria  fuerit,  they  arrange 
that  they  shall  fight ;  that  the  sovereignty  shall  be  on  the  side  which  shall  win 
the  victory  (whence  the  victory  may  have  been).  Liv.  Apparebat  regnaturum 
qul  vlcisset,1  it  was  evident  that  he  would  be  Icing  who  should  conquer.  Liv. 

NOTE.— For  Tenses  in  Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse,  see  537. 

Pronouns  and  Persons  in  Indirect  Discourse* 

526.  In  passing  from  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE  to  the  INDIRECT, 
pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  are  generally  changed  to 
pronouns  of  the  third  person,2  and  the  first  and  second  persons  of 
verbs  are  generally  changed  to  the  third  person  : 

Gloriatus  est,  annulum  se  sua  manu  confecisse,3  he  boasted  that  he  had  made 
the  ring  with  his  own  hand.  Cic.  Eedditur  responsurn,  castrls  se  tenerent,4 
the  reply  was  returned  that  they  should  keep  themselves  in  camp.  Liv.  Ee- 
spondit,  si  obsides  ab  iis  sibl  dentur,  sese  cum  iis  pacem  esse  facturum,5  he 
replied  that  if  hostages  should  be  given  to  him  by  them,  he  would  make  peace 
with  them.  Caes. 

Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

527.  Conditional  sentences,  in  passing  from  the  DIRECT  DIS- 
COURSE to  the  INDIRECT,  undergo  the  following  changes : 

1  In  the  direct  discourse— (1)  ibl  imperium  erit,  Unde  victoria  fuerit,  and  (2)  reg- 
ndbit  qul  vlcerit. 

3  Thus— (1)  ego  is  changed  to  sul,  sibl,  etc.,  or  to  ipse  ;  meus  and  noeter  to  suus  ;  (2) 
tii  to  is  or  ille,  sometimes  to  sul,  etc. ;  tuus  and  vester  to  suus  or  to  the  Genitive  of  is; 
and  (8)  hie  and  iste  to  ille.  But  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person  may  of  course  be  used 
in  the  indirect  discourse  in  reference  to  the  reporter  or  author,  and  the  pronoun  of  the 
second  person  in  reference  to  the  person  addressed  :  Adfirmavi  quidvis  me  perpessu- 
rum,  /  asserted  that  I  would  endure  anything.  Cic.  Eespondeo  te  dolorem  ferre  mode- 
rate, I  reply  that  YOU  bear  the  affliction  with  moderation.  Cic. 

3  Direct,  annulum  ego  med  manu  cdnfecl.    Ego  becomes  se,  and  med,  sud. 

*  Direct,  castrls  vos  tenete.     Yds  becomes  «<?,  and  Unite,  tenerent. 

6  Direct,  si  obsides  a  yobls  mihl  dabuntur,  voblscum  pacem  faciam.  A  vobla 
becomes  ab  iis;  mihl  becomes  sibi;  voblscum,  cum  Us;  and  the  implied  subject  of 
faciam  becomes  se-se,  the  subject  of  esse  facturum. 


300  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

I.  In  the  FIRST  FORM,  the  Indicative  is  changed  to  the  Subjunctive  in  the 
condition  and  to  the  Infinitive  in  the  conclusion : 

Kespondit,  si  quid  Caesar  se  velit,  ilium  ad  se  venire  oportere,1  Tie  replied^ 
if  Caesar  wished  anything  of  him,  he  ought  to  come  to  him.  Caes. 

NOTE.— In  all  forms  of  conditional  sentences  the  conclusion,  when  imperative,  and 
generally  when  interrogative,  takes  the  Subjunctive  according  to  5/83 : 

Besponderunt,  si  non  aequum  existimaret,  etc.,  cur  postularet,2  etc.,  they  replied,  if 
he  did  not  think  it  fair,  etc.,  why  did  he  demand,  etc.  Caes.  Eum  certiorem  feco- 
rnnt,  si  suas  res  manere  vellet,  Alcibiadem  persequeretur,3  they  informed  him  that  if 
he  wfehed  his  institutions  to  be  permanent,  he  should  take  measure*  against  Alci- 
biades.  Nep.  Die  quidnam  facturus  fuerls,  si  censor  fuisses,4  say  what  you  would 
have  done,  if  you  Jiad  been  censor.  Liv. 

II.  In  the  SECOND  FORM,  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  the  con- 
dition remains  unchanged  after  a  principal  tense,  but  may  be  changed 5  to 
the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  after  an  historical  tense,  and  in  the  conclu- 
sion it  is  changed  to  the  Future  Infinitive : 

Eespondit,  si  stlpendium  remittatur,  libenter  sese  recusaturum  populi 
Koma.nl  amicitiam,6  Tie  replied  that  if  the  tribute  should  be  remitted,  he  icould 
gladly  renounce  the  friendship  of  the  Roman  people.  Caes. 

NOTE.— See  note  under  I. 

III.  In  the  THIRD  FORM,  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  remains 
unchanged  in  the  condition,  regardless  of  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb, 
but  in  the  conclusion  it  is  changed  to  the  Periphrastic  Infinitive  in  -rus 
fuisse,  rarely  to  that  in  -rus  esse: 

Eespondit,  si  quid  ipsl  a  Caesare  opus  esset,  sese  ad  eum  venturum  fuisse,7 
he  replied  that  if  he  wanted  anything  of  Caesar ',  he  would  have  come  to  him. 
Caes.  Clamitabat,  si  ille  adesset,  ventures  esse,7  he  cried  out  that  they  would 
come  if  he  were  present.  Caes. 

NOTE  1.— In  the  conclusion,  the  periphrastic  form  futurum  fuisse  ut  with  the  Sub- 
junctive is  used  in  the  Passive  voice,  and  sometimes  in  the  Active : 

Nisi  nuntii  essent  allatl,  existimabant  futurum  fuisse  ut  oppidum  amitteretur,7  they 
thought  that  the  town  would  have  been  lost,  if  tidings  had  not  been  brought.  Caes. 

NOTE  2.— In  conditional  sentences  with  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  /Subjunctive  in 
the  condition,  and  with  an  historical  tense  of  the  Indicative  in  the  conclusion — 

1  Direct,  si  quid  Caesar  me  vult,  ilium  ad  me  venire  oportet.    For  change  of  pro- 
nouns see  526,  and  for  the  tense  of  velit  see  525, 1. 

2  Direct,  6i  non  aequum  exlstimds,  curpostulds  ? 

3  Direct,  si  tuds  res  manere  vis,  Alcibiadem  persequere.    Notice  change  in  the 
pronoun  and  in  the  person  of  the  verb;  see  526. 

4  Direct,  quidnam  fecisses  (orfactilrusfulstl),  si  censor  fuisses. 

6  But  is  often  retained  unchanged  according  to  525, 1. 

8  Direct,  si  stlpendium  remittatur,  libenter  recHsem  populi  jRomdnl  amicitiam, 
or  si  stlpendium,  remittetur,  libenter  recusdbo  populi  Edmanl  amicitiam.  Observe 
that  these  two  forms  become  identical  in  the  indirect  discourse. 

7  Direct — (1)  si  quid  mihl  d  Caesare  opus  esset,  ad  eum  venissem;  (2)  si  ille 
adesset,  venlrent;  and  (3)  nisi  nuntii  essent  alldtl,  oppidum  amissum  esset. 


INDIRECT  CLAUSES.  301 

1)  The  Indicative  is  generally  changed  to  the  Perfect  Infinitive : 

Memento  istam  dignitatem  te  non  potuisse  consequi,  nisi  meis  consiliis  paruisses,1 
remember  that  you  would  not  have  been  able  to  attain  that  dignity,  if  you  had  not 
followed  my  counsels.  Cic. 

2)  The  Indicative  is  changed  to  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  if  the  context  requires  that 
mood: 

Quis  dubitat  quin  si  Saguntlms  tulissemus  operam,  aversuri  bellum  fuerimus,1  who 
doubts  that  we  should  have  averted  the  war,  if  we  had  carried  aid  to  the  Sagun- 
tines  ?  Liv.  Scimus  quid,  si  vixisset,  facturus  fuerit,1  we  know  what  he  would  have 
done,  if  he  had  lived.  Liv. 

Indirect  Clauses. 

528.  The  indirect  discourse  in  its  widest  application  includes — 

1.  Subordinate  clauses  containing  statements  made  on  the  authority  of 
any  other  person  than  the  writer ;  see  516 : 

Omnes  Hbros  quos  fritter  suus  rellquisset  mihi  donavit,  he  gave  to  me  all 
the  looks  which  his  brother  had  left*  Cic. 

2.  Indirect  questions ;  see  529,  I. 

NOTE.— A  clause  which  involves  a  question  without  directly  asking  it  is  called  an  In- 
direct or  Dependent  Question  : 

Quaesivit  salvusne  esset  clipeus,  he  asked  whether  his  shield  was  safe.3  Cic. 

3.  Many  subordinate  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or  upon  a 
Subjunctive ;  see  529,  II. 

RULiE  LV.— Moods  in  Indirect  Clauses* 

529.  The  Subjunctive  is  used — 
I.  In  indirect  questions : 

Quaeritur,  cur  doctissiml  homines  dissentiant,  it  is  a  question,  why  the 
most  learned  men  disagree.  Cic.  Quaesieras,  nonne  putarem,  you  had  asked 
whether  I  did  not  think.  Cic.  Qualis  sit  animus,  animus  nescit,  the  soul 
knows  not  what  the  soul  is.  Cic.  Quid  dies  ferat  incertum  est,  what  a  day 
ivill  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic.  Quaeritur  quid  f  uturum  sit,  what  will 
be,  is  the  question.  Cic.  Quaerit  quinam  eventus,  si  foret  bellatum,  futurus 
fuerit,  he  asks  what  would  have  been  the  result  if  war  had  been  waged.  Liv. 
Dubito  num  debeam,  I  doubt  whether  I  ought.  Plin.  Incerta  f eror  si  Jup- 
piter  velit,  /  am  rendered  uncertain  whether  Jupiter  wishes.  Yerg.  Ut  te 
oblectes  scire  cupio,  /  wish  to  know  how  you  amuse  yourself.  Cic.  Difficile 

1  Direct— (1)  istam  dignitatem  consequl  nonpotuistl,  nisi  meis  consilils  pdruis- 
ees,'  (2)  si  Saguntinls  tulissemus  operam,  bellum  dversurl  fuimus;  (8)  quid,  si 
mvisset,  facturus  fuit  ? 

2  That  is,  which  he  said  his  brother  had  left. 

3  Here  no  question  is  directly  asked.    We  have  simply  the  statement,  'he  asked 
whether  his  shield  was  safe,'  but  this  statement  involves  the  question,  salvusne  est 

is  my  shield  safe?1 


302  INDIRECT  CLAUSES. 

dictu  est  utrum  timuerint  an  dllSxerint,  it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  they 
feared  or  loved.   Cic. 

II.  Often  in  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or 
upon  another  Subjunctive : 

Nihil  indlgnius  est  quam  eum  qui  culpa  careat  supplicio  non  carere, 
nothing  is  more  shameful  than  that  he  who  is  FREE  from  fault  should  not  be 
exempt  from  punishment.  Cic.  Utrum  difficilius  esset  negare  tibi  an  ef- 
ficere  id  quod  roaares  diu  dubitavi,  whether  it  would  be  more  difficult  to  re- 
fuse your  request  or  to  do  that  which  YOU  ASK,  /  have  long  doubted.  Cic. 
Recordatione  nostrae  amicitiae  sic  fruor  ut  beate  vixisse  videar  quia  cum 
Scipione  vlxerim,  I  so  enjoy  the  recollection  of  our  friendship  that  I  seem  to 
have  lived  happily  because  I  HAVE  LIVED  with  Scipio.  Cic.  Naevium  rogat 
ut  ciiret  quod'dixisset,  lie  asked  Naeviw  to  attend  to  that  which  HE  HAD  MEN- 
TIONED. Cic.  Yereor  ne,  dum  minuere  velim  laborem,  augeam,  I  fear  that, 
ivhile  I  WISH  to  diminish  the  labor,  I  shall  increase  it.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— In  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or  upon  a  Subjunctive,  observe— 

1)  That  the  Subjunctive  is  used  when  the  clauses  are  essential  to  the  general 
thought  of  the  sentence,  as  in  the  examples  just  given. 

2)  That  the  Indicative  is  used  when  the  clauses  are  in  a  measure  parenthetical,  and 
when  they  give  special  prominence  to  the/octf  stated  : 

Milites  misit,  ut  eos  qui  lugerant  persequerentur,  he  sent  soldiers  to  pursue  those 
who  had  fled  (i.  e.,  the  fugitives).  Caes.  Tanta  vis  probitatis  est,  ut  earn,  vel  in  iis  quos 
nunquam  vidimus,  diligamus,  such  is  the  force  of  integrity  that  we  love  it  even  in  those 
whom  we  have  never  seen.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— In  clauses  introduced  by  dum,  the  Indicative  is  very  common,  especially  in 
the  poets  and  historians : 

Fugre  qui,  dum  dubitat  Scaevinus,  hortarentur  Pisonem,  there  were  those  who  ex- 
torted Piso,  while  Scaevinus  hesitated.  Tac.  See  also  467,  4. 

1.  Indirect  or  dependent  questions,  like  those  not  dependent  (351,  1),  are 
introduced  by  interrogative  pronouns  or  other  interrogative  words,  as  quis, 
qui,  quatis,  etc. ;  quid,  cur,  ne,  nonne,  num  ;  rarely  by  si,  l  whether,'  and  ut, 
1  how ' ;  see  examples  above. 

NOTE  1.— Si  is  sometimes  best  rendered  to  see  whether,  to  see  if,  to  try  if,  etc. . 

Te  adeunt,  si  quid  veils,  they  come  to  you  to  see  whether  you  wish  anything.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — In  the  poets  si  is  sometimes  similarly  used  with  the  Indicative : 

Inspice  si  possum  donata  reponere,  examine  me  to  see  whether  lam  able  to  restore 
your  gifts.  Hor. 

NOTE  3.— In  indirect  questions  num  does  not  necessarily  imply  negation. 

NOTE  4. — An  indirect  question  may  readily  be  changed  to  a  direct  or  independ- 
ent question.1 

2.  An  Accusative,  referring  to  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  of  the 
question,  is  sometimes,  especially  in  poetry,  inserted  after  the  principal  verb : 

1  Thus  the  direct  question  involved  in  the  first  example  is,  cur  ddctissiml  homines 
dissentiunt,  'why  do  the  most  leajned  men  disagree?'  In  the  second,  nonne  putds^ 
'doyounotthinfcr 


INDIRECT  QUESTIONS.  303 

Ego  ilium  nescio  qul  fuerit,  /  do  not  know  (him)  who  he  was.  Ter.  Dlo 
hominem  qul  sit,  tell  who  the  man  is.  Plaut. 

3.  Indirect  double  questions  are  generally  introduced  by  the  same  inter- 
rogative particles  as  those  which  are  direct  (353).     Thus — 

4  1)  They  generally  take  utrum  or  -ne  in  the  first  member  and  an  in  the 
second : 

Quaeritur  virtus  suamne  propter  dignitatem  an  propter  fructus  aliquos  ex- 
petatur,  it  is  asked  whether  virtue  is  sought  for  its  own  worth,  or  for  certain  ad- 
vantages. Cic. 

2)  But  they  sometimes  omit  the  particle  in  the  first  member,  and  take  in 
the  second  an  or  -ne  in  the  sense  of  or,  and  necne  or  an  non  in  the  sense  of 
or  not : 

Quaeritur  natura  an  doctrlna  possit  efficl  virtus,  it  is  asked  whether  virtue 
can  be  secured  by  nature,  or  by  education.  Cic.  Sapientia  beatos  efficiat  necne 
quaestio  est,  whether  or  not  wisdom  makes  men  happy  is  a  question.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— Other  forms,  as  -ne  .  .  .  -ne,  an  .  .  .  an,  are  rare  or  poetic: 

Qui  teneant,  hominesne  feraene,  quaerere,  to  ascertain  who  inhabit  them,  whether 
men  or  leasts.  Verg. 

NOTE  2.— An,  in  the  sense  of  whether  not,  implying  an  affirmative,  is  used  after  verbs 
and  expressions  of  doubt  and  uncertainty :  dubito  an,  nescio  an,  haud  scio  an,  *I  doubt 
whether  not,' '  I  know  not  whether  not'  =  '  I  am  inclined  to  think ' ;  dubium  est  an,  in- 
cerium  est  cm,  *  it  is  uncertain  whether  not '  =  '  it  is  probable1 : 

Dubito  an  Thrasybulum  primum  omnium  ponam,  /  doubt  whether  I  should  not 
place  Thrasybulus  first  of  all  (i.  e.,  I  am  inclined  to  think  I  should).  Nep. 

NOTE  8.— An  sometimes  seems  to  have  the  force  of  aut : 

Cum  Simonides,  an  quis  alius,1  polliceretur,  when  /Simonides  or  some  other  one 
promised.  Cic. 

4.  The  Subjunctive  is  put  in  the  periphrastic  form  in  the  indirect  ques- 
tion (1)  when  it  represents  a  periphrastic  form  in  the  direct  question,  and 
(2)  generally,  not  always,  when  it  represents  a  Future  Indicative ;  see  the 
fifth  and  sixth  examples  under  639, 1. 

5.  INDIRECT  QUESTIONS  must  be  carefully  distinguished— 

1)  From  clauses  introduced  by  relative  pronouns  or  relative  adverbs. 
These  always  have  an  antecedent  or  correlative  expressed  or  understood,  and 
are  never,  as  a  whole,  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb,  while  indirect  ques- 
tions are  generally  so  used : 

Dlcam  quod  sentio  (relative  clause},  I  will  tell  that  which  (id  quod)  I  think* 
Cic.  Dlcam  quid  intellegam  (indirect  question),  I  will  tell  what  I  know.  Cic. 
Quaeramus  ubl  maleficium  est,  let  us  seek  there  (ib!)  where  the  crime  is.  Cic. 

2)  From  direct  questions  and  exclamations : 

1  Some  critics  treat  an  quis  alius  as  a  direct  question  inserted  parenthetically :  or 
was  it  some  other  one  f 

2  In  the  first  and  third  examples,  quod  sentio  and  ubl  .  .  .  est  are  not  questions,  but 
relative  clauses ;  id  is  understood  as  the  antecedent  of  quod,  and  ibl  as  the  antecedent 
or  correlative  of  ubl;  but  in  the  second  example,  quid  intellegam  is  an  indirect  ques- 
tion and  the  object  ofdlcam :  I  will  tell  (what?)  what  I  know  (i.  e.,  will  answer  that 
question), 


304  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

Quid  agendum  est?  nescid,  what  is  to  be  done?  I  know  not.1  Cic.  Vide! 
quam  conversa  res  est,  see  !  how  changed  is  the  case.  Cic. 

3)  From  clauses  introduced  by  nescid  quis  =  quldam*  l  some  one/  nescid 
quomodo  =  quddammodo,  '  in  some  way,'  mirum  quantum,  '  wonderfully 
much,*  '  wonderfully,'  etc.  These  take  the  Indicative :  ^ 

Nescid  quid  animus  praesagit,3  the  mind  forebodes,  I  know  not  what.  Ter. 
Id  mirum  quantum  profuit,  this  profited,  it  is  wonderful  how  much  (i.  e.,  it 
wonderfully  profited).  Liv. 

6.  PERSONAL  CONSTRUCTION. — Instead  of  an  impersonal  verb  with  an  indirect 
question  as  subject,  the  personal  construction  is  sometimes  used,  as  follows : 

Perspiciuntur  quam  sint  leves,4  it  is  seen  how  inconstant  they  are  !  Cic. 

7.  The  INDICATIVE  IN  INDIRECT  QUESTIONS  is  sometimes  used  in  early 
Latin  and  in  the  poets,  especially  in  Plautus  and  Terence  : 

Si  memorare  velim,  quam  fidell  animo  ful,  possum,  if  I  should  wish  to 
mention  how  much  fidelity  I  showed,  I  am  able.  Ter. 

530.  The  directions  already  given  for  converting  the  DIRECT  DIS- 
COURSE, Oratw  Recta,  into  the  INDIRECT,  Ordtib  Obllqua,  are  further  illus- 
trated in  the  following  passage  from  Caesar : 

DIRECT  DISCOURSE.  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

Caesarem  obsecrare  coepit :  4  Ne  Caesarem  obsecrare  coepit,  ne  quid 
quid  gravius  in  fratrem  statueris  ;  sci6  gravius  in  fratrem  statueret ;  scire  se 
ilia  esse  vera,  nee  quisquam  ex  eo  ilia  esse  vera,  nee  quemquam  ex  eo 
plus  quam  ego  doloris  capit,  propterea  plus  quam  se  doloris  capere,  propterea 
quod  cum  ipse  gratia  plurimum  domi  quod  cum  ipse  gratia  plurimum  domi 
atque  in  rgliqua  Gallia,  ille  minimum  atque  in  reliqua  Gallia,  ille  minimum 
propter  adulescentiam  poterat,  per  me  propter  adulescentiam  posset,  per  se 
cr'evit ;  quibus  opibus  ac  nervls  non  crevisset ;  quibus  opibus  ac  nervls 
solum  ad  minuendam  gratiam,  sed  non  solum  ad  minuendam  gratiam, 
paene  ad  perniciem  meam  utitur  /  sed  paene  ad  perniciem  suam  utWe- 
ego  tamen  et  amore  fraterno  et  exls-  tur  ;  sese  tamen  et  amore  fraterno  et 
timatione  vulgl  commoveor.  Quod  si  exlstunatione  vulgl  commoveri.  Quod 
quid  Si  a  te  gravius  accident,  cum  si  quid  el  a  Caesare  gravius  accidisset, 
ipse  hunc  locum  amlcitiae  apud  te  cum  ipse  eum  locum  amicitiae  apud 
teneam,  nemo  exlstimabit,  non  mea,  eum  teneret,  neminem  existimdturum,' 
voluntate  factum ;  qua  ex  re  totlus  non  sud  voluntate  factum ;  qua  ex  re 
Galliae  animl  a  me  dvertenturS  futurum  utl  totlus  Galliae  animi  a  se 

averterentur.   Caes.,  B.  G.,  I.,  20. 

1  Quid  agendum  sit  nescio,  *  I  know  not  what  is  to  be  done,'  would  be  an  indirect 
question. 

2  See  191,  note. 

3  Praesagit  does  not  depend  upon  nescid,  but  is  entirely  independent.    Nescio  quid 
animus praesdgiat  would  be  an  indirect  question,  and  would  mean,  7  know  not  what 
tJie  mind  forebodes. 

4  Lit.,  they  are  seen.    Observe  that  this  personal  construction  corresponds  to  the 
Active,  perspiciunt  eos  quam  sint  leves, l  they  perceive  (them)  how  inconstant  they  are.' 
See  also  ego  ilium  nescio  qul  fuerit,  539, 2. 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE.  305 

NOTE.— In  this  illustration  observe  the  following  points : 

1)  That  the  Indicative  in  the  principal  clauses  of  the  direct  discourse  is  changed  to 
the  corresponding  tense  of  the  Infinitive  in  the  indirect,1  and  that  the  Subjunctive,  sta- 
tuens,  denoting  incomplete  action,  is  changed  to  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  after  the 
historical  tense,  coejpit. 

2)  That  in  the  subordinate  clauses  the  verbs  denoting  incomplete  action  are  changed 
to  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  while  those  denoting  completed  action  are  changed  to  the 
Pluperfect  Subjunctive.2 

3)  That  scid  becomes  sclre  se  (i.  e.,  that  the  subject  of  the  Infinitive  is  generally  ex- 
pressed). 

4)  That  the  pronouns  of  the  first  person  are  changed  to  reflexives  ;  and  that  those  of 
the  second  person  are  changed  to  is.3 

53 1 .  The  process  by  which  the  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE,  Ordtio  Obllqua, 
is  changed  to  the  DIRECT,  Oratio  Recta,  is  illustrated  in  the  following  pas 
sages  from  Caesar : 

INDIRECT  DISCOURSE.  DIRECT  DISCOURSE. 

Eespondit,  trdnslsse  Khenum  sese  Kespondit:  *'  Transit  Khemim  non 

non  md  sponte,  sed  rogdtum  et  arces-  med  sponte,  sed  roq&tus  et  arcessltus 

sltum  a  Gallls.    Se  prius  in  Galliam  a  Gallls.    Ego  pritis  in  Galliam  veni 

venisse    quam   populum    Romdmim.  quam  populus  KOmdnm.     Quid  tiU 

Quid  sibi  vellet ?    Cur  in  suds  posses-  vis?    Cur  in  meds  possessiones  ve- 

siones  venlret  f  Caes.,  B.  G.,  I.,  44.  nlsf ' 

Ita  respondit,  eo  sibi  minus  dubi-  Ita   respondit :   c  Eo  miM  minus 

tationis  darl  quod  eas  res  quaa  legati  dubitationis  datur  quod  eas  res  quas> 

Helvetil  commemordssent  memoria  te-  vos,  legati  Helvetil,  commemordvistis, 

neret.  Quod  si  veteris  contumeliae  ob-  memoria  teneo.    Quod  si  veteris  con- 

llviscl  vellet,  num  etiam  recentium  in-  tumeliae  obllviscl  void,  num  etiam  re- 

juriarum  memoriam  dep5nere^5«6/  centium  injuriarum  memoriam  de- 

Cum  ea  ita  sint,  tamen,  si  obsides  ab  ponere  possum  f    Cum  haeo  ita  sint, 

us  sibi  dentur,  sese  cum  ils  pacein  esse  tamen,  si  obsides  a  v obis  mild  dabun- 

facturum.  Caes.,  B.  G.,  I.,  14.  tur,  vobiscum  pacem/amm.' 

NOTE.— In  these  illustrations  observe  the  following  points : 

1)  That  in  the  principal  clauses  (1)  the  Infinitives  with  se  or  8ese,  expressed  or  un- 
derstood, are  changed  to  the  first  person  of  the  Indicative  ;  4  (2)  other  Infinitives  are 
also  changed  to  the  Indicative,  but  the  person  is  determined  by  the  context ;  6  and  (3) 

1  Thus  scid  becomes  sctre;  capit,  capere;  commoveor,  commoveri ;  exlstimdbit, 
exlstimdturum  (esse);  and  dvertentur,  futurum  utl  dverterentur.    This  last  form, 
futurum  uH  dverterentur,  is  the  Periphrastic  Future  Infinitive  Passive;  see  537,  3. 

2  Thus  poterat  becomes  posset;  tiUtur,  uteretur;  teneam,  teneret;  butcrevit  be- 
comes crevisset;  acciderit,  accidisset. 

3  Thus  (1)  ego  is  changed  to  se;  me  to  se;  meam  to  suam;  med  to  sud;  and  (2) 
te  to  eum  ;  hunc  to  eum. 

4  Thus  translsse  sese  is  changed  to  transit ;  se  venisse  to  ego  venl ;  sese  esse  fac- 
turum  tofaciam ;  posse,  with  se  understood,  to  possum. 

5  Thus  minus  darl  becomes  minus  datur;  but  if  the  subject  of  the  Infinitive  is  of 
the  second  person,  the  Indicative  will  also  be  of  that  person.    Responded  te  dolorem 
ferre  moderate  thus  becomes  responded,  'doldrem  moder&tefert;''  see  p.  299,  foot- 
oote  2, 


306  INFINITIVE. 

Subjunctives  are  changed  to  the  Indicative,  after  interrogative  words,1  and  to  the  Im* 
perative  in  other  situations.2 

2)  That  in  the  subordinate  clauses  the  Subjunctive,  unless  required  by  the  thought 
irrespective  of  the  indirect  discourse,  is  changed  to  the  Indicative.* 

3)  That  the  reflexive  pronouns  sui,  sibi,  etc.,  and  suus  are  changed  (1)  generally  to 
pronouns  of  the  first  person,  but  (2)  sometimes  to  those  of  the  second  person.4 

4)  That  is  and  ille  are  (1)  generally  changed  to  tu  or  7iic,  but  (2)  sometimes  retained.3 

5)  That  a  noun  referring  to  the  person  or  persons  addressed  may  be  put  in  the 
Vocative  preceded  by  tu  or  vds.* 

SECTION   VII. 

INFINITIVE.-SUBSTANTIVE    CLAUSES. 

I.  INFINITIVE. 

532.  The  Infinitive  is  a  verbal  noun  with  special  character- 
istics.    Like  verbs,  it  has  voice  and  tense,  takes  adverbial  modi- 
fiers, and  governs  oblique  cases.7 

RULE  L  VI.— Infinitive. 

533.  Many  verbs  admit  an  Infinitive  to  complete  or 
qualify  their  meaning : 

Audeo  dlcere,  I  dare  say  (I  venture  to  say).   Cic.     Haec  vitare  cupimus, 
we  desire  to  avoid  tJiese  things.   Cic.     Constituit  non  progredi,  he  decided 

1  Thus  quid  vellet  is  changed  to  quid  vis  ?  cur  veniret  to  cur  vents  f    Vellet  and 
venlret  are  in  the  Imperfect  simply  because  dependent  upon  an  historical  tense,  and  are 
therefore  changed  to  the  Present  in  the  direct  discourse.    In  deliberative  questions 
(484,  V.)  the  Subjunctive  is  retained  in  the  direct  discourse. 

2  Thus  cum  legidne  veniat,  under  533,  III.,  becomes  cum  leffionevenl.    The  Sub- 
junctive may  of  course  be  retained  in  the  direct  discourse  whenever  the  thought  requires 
that  mood. 

3  Thus  commemordssent,  pluperfect  after  an  historical  tense,  is  changed  to  com- 
memordvistis  ;  teneret  to  teneO;  vellet  to  void;  dentur  to  dabuntur.    Sint  is  retained 
unchanged  because  required  in  a  causal  clause  with  cum  ;  see  517. 

4  Thus  (1)  trdnsUse  seseia  changed  to  transit,  with  subject  implied  in  the  ending; 
%ud  to  med;  se  venisse  to  ego  venl,  with  emphatic  subject ;  suds  to  meds;  sibi  to  mihl ; 
sese  esse  facturum  tofaciam  ;  (2)  sibi  to  tibl,  in  quid  sibl  vellet.    As  the  subject  of  an 
Infinitive  (536),  se  or  sese  often  corresponds  to  the  pronominal  subject  implied  in  the 
ending  of  a  finite  verb ;  see  p.  187,  foot-note  5. 

6  Thus  (1)  ab  iis  is  changed  to  d  vobls;  cum  Us  to  voblscum;  ea  ita  sint  to  haec 
ita  sint;  (2)  eds  res  is  retained. 

6  Thus  legdtl  Helvetii,  the  subject  of  commemordssent,  is  changed  to  DOS,  Ugdtl 
Helvetii. 

7  Originally  the  Latin  Infinitive  appears  to  have  been  the  Dative  case  of  an  abstract 
verbal  noun,  and  to  have  been  used  to  denote  the  purpose  or  end  (384, 1,  8)  for  which 
anything  is  or  is  done.    Being  thus  only  loosely  connected  with  the  verb  of  the  sentence, 
It  readily  lost  its  special  force  as  a  case  and  soon  began  to  be  employed  with  considerable 
freedom  in  a  variety  of  constructions.    In  this  respect  the  history  of  the  Infinitive  resem- 


INFINITIVE.  307 

not  to  advance,  Caes.  Credull  esse  coeperunt,  they  began  to  be  credulous. 
Cic.  Yincere  scis,  you  know  how  to  conquer  (you  know  to  conquer).  Liv. 
Victoria  iiti  nescls,  you  do  not  know  how  to  use  victory.  Liv.  Latme  loqui 
didicerat,  he  had  learned  to  speak  Latin.  Sail.  D6bSs  h5c  rescribere,  you 
ought  to  write  this  in  reply.  Hor.  N6m6  mortem  effugere  potest,  no  one  is 
able  to  escape  death.  Cic.  Solent  cogitare,  they  are  accustomed  to  think.  Cic. 

I.  The  Infinitive  is  thus  used — 

1.  With  TRANSITIVE  VERBS  meaning  to  dare,  desire,  determine ;  to  begin  ^ 
continue,  end  ;  to  know,  learn  ;  to  owe,  etc. ;  see  examples  above. 

NOTE  1.— For  the  /Subjunctive  with  some  of  these  verbs,  see  498, 1.,  note. 
NOTE  2.— See  also  498,  II.,  note  1. 

2.  With  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  meaning  to  be  able  ;  to  be  wont,  be  accustomed, 
etc. ;  see  examples  above. 

II.  In  special  constructions  the  Infinitive  has  nearly  the  force  of  a 
PATIVE  OP  PURPOSE  OR  END — J 

1.  With  INTRANSITIVE  VERBS  : 

Non  populare  penates  venimus,  we  have  not  come  to  lay  waste  your  homes. 
Verg.  Conjuravere  patriam  incendere,  they  conspired  to  destroy  their  country 
with  fire.  Sail. 

2.  With  TRANSITIVE  VERBS  in  connection  with  the  Accusative : 

Pecus  egit  altos  visere  montes,  he  drove  Ms  herd  to  visit  the  lofty  moun- 
tains. Hor.  Quid  habes  dicere,  what  have  you  to  say  ?  Cic.  Dederat  comam 
drffundere  ventls,  she  had  given  her  hair  to  the  winds  to  scatter.  Verg.2 

3.  With  ADJECTIVES  : 

Est  paratus  audire,  he  is  prepared  to  hear  (for  hearing).  Cic.  Avidi  com- 
mittere  pugnam,  eager  to  engage  (for  engaging)  in  battle.  Ovid.  Fons  rlvo 
dare  nomen  idoneus,  a  fountain  fit  to  give  a  name  to  the  river.  Hor. 

NOTE  1.— This  use  of  the  Infinitive  is  mostly  poetical. 

NOTE  2. — With  adjectives  and  with  participles  used  as  adjectives  the  Infinitive  i* 
rare  in  prose,  but  is  freely  used  in  poetry  in  a  variety  of  constructions  : 

Cantare  peritus,  skilled  in  singing.  Verg.  Pelides  cedere  nescius,  Pelidea  not 
knowing  how  to  yield.  Hor.  Certa  mori,  determined  to  die.  Verg.  DIgnus  describi, 
worthy  to  be  described.  Hor.  Vitulus  niveus  videri,3  a  calf  snow-white  to  view.  Hor. 

bles  that  of  adverbs  from  the  oblique  cases  of  nouns.  As  such  adverbs  are  often  used 
with  greater  freedom  than  the  cases  which  they  represent,  so  the  Latin  Infinitive  often 
appears  in  connections  where,  as  a  Dative,  it  would  not  have  been  at  all  admissible. 
Upon  the  Origin  and  History  of  the  Indo-European  Infinitive,  see  Jolly, '  Geschichte 
des  Infinltivs.'J 

1  In  these  constructions  the  Infinitive  retains  its  original  force  and  use;  see  533, 
foot-note. 

3  In  these  examples  with  transitive  verbs  observe  that  the  Accusative  and  Infini- 
tive correspond  to  the  Accusative  and  Dative  under  384,  II.,  and  that  the  Accusative^ 
Dative,  and  Infinitive  correspond  to  the  Accusative  and  two  Datives  under  390,  IL 

9  Mveus  videri,  like  the  Greek  Xeuicos  !6eV0<u. 


308  INFINITIVE. 

Piger  scribendl  ferre  laborem,  reluctant  to  bear  the  labor  of  writing.  Hor.  Buum  of- 
ficium  facere  immemor  est,  he  forgets  (is  forgetful)  to  do  his  duty.  Plant. 

NOTE  3.— The  Infinitive  also  occurs,  especially  in  poetry,  with  verbal  nouns  and  with 
such  expressions  as  tempus  est,  copia  est,  etc. : 

Cupldd  Stygios  innare  lacus,  a  desire  to  sail  upon  the  Stygian  lakes.  Verg.  Qui- 
bus  molliter  vivere  copia  erat,  who  7iad  the  means  for  living  at  ease.  Sail.  Tempus  est 
dlcere,  it  is  time  to  speak.  Cic. 

NOTE  4. — The  Infinitive  is  sometimes  used  with  prepositions : 

Multum  interest  inter  dare  et  accipere,  there  is  a  great  difference  between  giving 
and  receiving.  Sen. 

RULE  L,  VII.— Accusative  and  Infinitive. 

534.  Many  transitive  verbs  admit  both  an  Accusative 
and  an  Infinitive : 

Te  sapere  docet,  he  teaches  you  to  be  wise.  Cic.  Eos  suum  adventum 
exspectSre  jussit,  he  ordered  them  to  await  his  approach.  Caes.  Pontem 
jubet  rescind!,  he  orders  the  bridge  to  be  broken  down.  Caes.  Te  tua  frui 
virtute  cupimus,  we  wish  you  to  enjoy  your  virtue.  Cic.  Sentimus  calere 
ignem,  we  perceive  lhatjire  is  hot  (we  perceive  fire  to  be  hot).  Cic.  Regem 
tradunt  se  abdidisse,  they  relate  that  the  king  concealed  himself.1  Liv. 

NOTE.— In  the  compound  forms  of  the  Infinitive,  esse  is  often  omitted : 
Audm  solitum  Fabricium,  /  have  heard  that  Fabricius  was  wont.  Cic.    Speramus 
vobls  profuturos,  we  hope  to  benefit  you.  Cic. 

1.  The  corresponding  PASSIVE  is  sometimes  personal  and  sometimes 
impersonal :  * 

PERSONAL.— Aristides  justissimus  fuisse  traditur,  Aristides  is  said  (is  re- 
ported by  tradition)  to  have  been  most  just.  Cic.  Solem  e  mundo  tollere  vi- 
dentur,  they  seem  to  remove  the  sun  from  the  world.  Cic.  Platonem  audlvisse 
dicitur,  Tie  is  said  to  have  heard  Plato.  Cic.  Dii  beatl  esse  intelleguntur, 
the  gods  are  understood  to  be  happy.  Cic. 

IMPERSONAL.— Traditum  est  Homerum  caecum  fuisse,  it  has  been  reported 

1  Observe  that  in  the  first  three  examples  the  Accusatives  te,  eds,  and  pontem,  are 
the  direct  objects  of  the  finite  verbs,  while  in  the  other  examples  the  Accusatives  te,  ig* 
nem,  and  regem,  may  be  explained  either  as  the  direct  objects  of  the  finite  verbs,  or  as 
the  subjects  of  the  Infinitives.  The  former  was  doubtless  the  original  construction,  but 
in  time  the  object  of  the  principal  verb  came  to  be  regarded  in  many  cases  as  the  subject 
of  the  Infinitive  depending  upon  it.  Thus  was  developed  the  Subject  Accusative  of  the 
Infinitive. 

a  These  two  constructions  correspond  to  the  two  interpretations  of  the  Active  men- 
tioned in  foot-note  1  above.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  Aristldem  justissimum  fuisse  trd- 
dunt,  it  Aristldem  is  regarded  as  the  object  of  tradunt,  according  to  the  original  concep- 
tion, the  corresponding  Passive  will  be  personal :  Aristides  justissimus  fuisse  trdditur  ; 
but  if  Aristldem  is  regarded  as  the  subject  of  fuisse,  and  the  clause  Aristldem  justissi- 
mum  fuisse  as  the  object  of  tradunt,  then  the  same  clause  will  become  the  subject  of  the 
Passive,  and  the  construction  will  be  impersonal:  Aristldem  jiistissimum fuisse  trddi- 
fur,  *  it  is  reported  by  tradition  that  Aristides  wae  most  just.' 


INFINITIVE.  309 

by  tradition  that  Homer  was  blind.  Cic.  Unam  partem  Gallos  obtinere  dic- 
tum est,  it  has  been  stated  that  the  Gauls  occupy  one  part.  Caes.  Nuntiatur 
esse  naves  in  portu,  it  is  announced  that  the  vessels  are  in  port.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  Personal  Construction  is  used — (1)  regularly  in  jubeor,  vetor,  and 
videor;  (2)  generally  in  the  simple  tenses1  of  most  verbs  of  SAYING,  THINKING,  and  the 
like,  as  dicor,  trador,  feror,  nuntior,  credor,  e&istimor,  putor,  perMbeor,  etc. ;  (3) 
sometimes  in  other  verbs ;  see  examples  above. 

NOTE  2. — The  Impersonal  Construction  is  especially  common  in  the  compound 
tenses,1  though  also  used  in  the  simple  tenses  ;  see  examples  above. 

535.  The  ACCUSATIVE  AND  AN  INFINITIVE  are  used  with  a  great 
variety  of  verbs.  Thus — 

I.  With  verbs  of  PERCEIVING  and  DECLARING  : 

Sentimus  calere  ignem,  we  perceive  that  Jire  is  hot.  Cic.  Mihl  narravit  te 
sollicitum  esse,  he  told  me  that  you  were  troubled.  Cic.  Scripserunt  Themis- 
toclem  in  Asiam  transisse,  they  lorote  that  Themistocles  had  gone  over  to 
Asia.  Nep. 

1.  VERBS  OF  PERCEIVING  include  those  which  involve  (1)  the  exercise  of 
the  senses :  audio,  video,  sentio,  etc.,  and  (2)  the  exercise  of  the  mind — THINK- 
ING, BELIEVING,  KNOWING  i  coffito,  putO,  existimo,  cr'edo,  spero—intellego,  scio,  etc. 

2.  VERBS  OF  DECLARING  are  such  as  state  or  communicate  facts  or  thoughts : 
died,  ndrro,  nuntio,  doceo,  ostendo,  promitto,  etc. 

3.  Expressions  equivalent  to  verbs  of  perceiving  and  of  declaring,  as  fdma 
fert,  'report  says,7  testis  sum,  4I  am  a  witness '  =c  I  testify,'  conscius  mihl 
sum,  1 1  am  conscious,'  '  I  know,'  also  admit  an  Accusative  with  an  Infinitive  : 

Nullam  mih!  relatam  esse  gratiam,  tu  es  testis,  you  are  a  witness  (can 
testify)  that  no  grateful  return  has  been  made  to  me.  Cic. 

4.  PARTICIPLE  FOR  INFINITIVE.— Verbs  of  perceiving  take  the  Accusative 
with  the  present  participle,  when  the  object  is  to  be  represented  as  actually 
seen,  heard,  etc.,  while  engaged  in  a  given  action: 

Catonem  vldl  in  bibliotheca  sedentem,  /  saw  Cato  sitting  in  the  library, 
Cic. 

5.  SUBJECTS  COMPARED.— When  two  subjects  with  the  same  predicate  are 
compared,  and  the  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive  is  used  in  the  first  clause, 
the  Infinitive  may  be  understood  in  the  second : 

Platonem  ferunt  idem  sensisse  quod  Pythagoram,  they  say  that  Plato  held 
the  same  opinion  as  Pythagoras.  Cic. 

6.  PREDICATES  COMPARED. — When  two  predicates  with  the  same  subject 
are  compared,  and  the  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive  is  used  in  the  first 
clause,  the  Accusative  may  be  understood  in  the  second : 

Num  putatis,  dixisse  Antonium  minacius  quam  facturum  fuisse,  do  you 
think  Antony  spoke  more  threateningly  than  he  would  have  acted?  Cic. 
NOTE.— But  the  second  clause  may  take  the  Subjunctive,  with  or  without  ut: 

1  The  learner  will  remember  that  the  simple  tenses  are  formed  simply  by  inflexional 
endings,  as  dlcitur,  dlcebatur,  but  that  the  compound  tenses  are  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  perfect  participle  with  the  verb  sum,  as  dictum  «f,  dictum  erat,  etc, 


310  INFINITIVE. 

AudeO  dlcere  ipsos  potius  cultores  agrorum  fore  quam  ut  coli  prohibeant,  /  dare  say 
that  they  will  themselves  become  tillers  of  the  Jidda  rather  than  prevent  them  from 
being  tilled.  Liv. 

II.  With  verbs  of  WISHING,   DESIRING,  COMMANDING,  and  their  op- 
posites : l 

Te  tua  frul  virtute  cupimus,  ice  desire  that  you  should  enjoy  your  virtue. 
Cic.  Pontem  jubet  rescind!,  he  orders  the  bridge  to  be  broken  dozen  (that  the 
bridge  should  be  broken  down).  Caes.  Lex  eum  necarl  vetuit,  the  law  for- 
bade that  he  should  be  put  to  death.  Liv. 

NOTE.— Several  verbs  involving  a  wish  or  command  admit  the  Subjunctive,  generally 
with  ut  or  ne;  see  498, 1 : 

Opt6  ut  id  audiatis,  /  desire  that  you  may  hear  this.  Cic.  Void  ut  respondeas,  1 
wish  you  would  reply.  Cic.  Malo  te  hostis  metuat,  I  prefer  that  the  enemy  should 
fear  you.  Cic.  Concede  ut  haec  apta  sint,  I  admit  that  these  things  are  suitable.  Cic. 

III.  With  verbs  of  EMOTION  and  FEELING  : 2 

GaudeO  te  mihi  suadere,  /  rejoice  that  you  advise  me.  Cic.  Mlramur  te 
laetarl,  we  wonder  that  you  rejoice.  Cic. 

NOTE.— Verbs  of  emotion  and  feeling  often  take  clauses  with  quod  (540,  IV.)  to 
give  prominence  to  the  fact  stated,  or  to  emphasize  the  around  or  reason  for  the  feeling : 

Gauded  quod  te  interpellavi,  I  rejoice  that  (or  because)  I  have  interrupted  you.  Cic. 
DolGbam  quod  socium  amlseram,  I  was  grieving  because  I  had  lost  a  companion.  Cic. 

IY.  Sometimes,  especially  in  POETRY  and  in  LATE  PROSE,  with  verbs 
which  usually  take  the  Subjunctive : 9 

Gentem  hortor  amare  focos,  /  exhort  the  race  to  love  their  homes.  Verg. 
Cuncti  suaserunt  Italiain  petere,  all  advised  to  seek  Italy.  Verg.  Soror  monet 
succedere  Lauso  Turnum,  the  sister  warns  Turnus  to  take  the  place  of  Lausus. 
Verg. 

RULE  LV  ILL.— Subject  of  Infinitive. 

536.  The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  an  Accusative  as 
its  subject :  * 

Sentlmus  calere  ignem,  we  perceive  that  fire  is  hot.  Cic.  PlatCnem 
Tarentum  venisse  reperio,  I  find  that  Plato  came  to  Tarentum.  Cic. 

1  As  cupio,  optd,  void,  nolo,  mdlo,  etc.;  patior,  sino;  impero,  jubed  ;  prohibeo, 
veto,  etc. 

8  As  gauded,  doleo,  miror,  queror,  etc. ;  also  aegrefero,  graviterferfy  etc. 

3  Many  verbs  in  Latin  thus  admit  two  or  more  different  constructions ;  see  in  the 
dictionary  adigo,  cen#e0,  concede,  cogo,  conxtituO,  contend^  cupid,  euro,  decemo, 
dlcO,  doceO,  elaborO,  enltortfacid,  impediQ,  impero,  yubeo,  laboro,  mdlo,  mando,  mo- 
tior,  moned,  ndio,  opto,  bro,  patior,  permitlo,  persuddeO,  postulo,  praecipio,  prae- 
dlco,  prohibeD,  sino,  statuG,  studeQ,  suadeo,  veto,  video.    See  also  Draeger,  II.,  pp. 
230-416. 

4  Remember  that  the  Infinitive,  as  a  verbal  noun,  originally  had  no  subject,  but  that 
subsequently  in  special  constructions  a  subject  Accusative  was  developed  out  of  the  ob- 
ject of  the  principal  verb;  see  534,  foot-note  1.   In  classical  Latin  many  Infinitives  have 
no  subjects,  either  expressed  or  understood. 


INFINITIVE.  311 

1.  HISTORICAL  INFINITIVE. — In  lively  descriptions  the  Present  Infinitive  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  Imperfect  or  the  Perfect  Indicative.    It  is  then  called 
the  Historical  Infinitive,  and,  like  a  finite  verb,  has  its  subject  in  the  Nomina- 
tive : 

Catillna  in  prima  acie  versarl,  omnia  providere,  multum  ipse  pugnare, 
saepe  hostem  ferlre,  Catiline  was  busy  in  the  front  line  ;  lie  attended  to  every- 
thing, fought  much  in  person,  and  often  smote  down  the  enemy.1  Sail. 

NOTE.— The  Historical  Infinitive  sometimes  denotes  customary  or  repeated  action  : 
Omnia  in  pejus  mere  ac  retro  referri,  all  things  change  rapidly  for  the  worse  and 
are  borne  backward.  Verg. 

2.  A  PREDICATE  NOUN  or  a  PREDICATE  ADJECTIVE  after  an  Infinitive  agrees 
with  the  noun  or  pronoun  of  which  it  is  predicated,  according  to  the  general 
rule  (362).    It  is  thus — 

1)  In  the  Nominative,  when  predicated  of  the  principal  subject: 

Nolo  esse  laudator,  lam  unwilling  to  be  a  eulogist.  Cic.  Be&tus  esse  sine 
virtute  nem5  potest,  no  one  can  be  happy  without  virtue.  Cic.  Parens  dicl 
potest,  he  can  be  called  a  parent.  Cic. 

NOTE.— Participles  in  the  compound  tenses  agree  like  predicate  adjectives : 

Pollicitus  esse  dicitur,  he  is  said  to  have  promised.  Cic. 

2)  In  the  Accusative,  when  predicated  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  Accusa- 
tive : 

Ego  me  Phldiam  esse  mallem,  /  should  prefer  to  be  Phidias.  Cic.  Tradi- 
tum  est,  Homerum  caecum  fuisse,2  it  has  been  handed  down  by  tradition  that 
Homer  was  blind.  Cic. 

3)  In  the  Dative,  when  predicated  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  Dative : 
Patricio  tribuno  plebis  fieri  non  licebat,  it  was  not  lawful  for  a  patrician 

to  be  made  tribune  of  the  people.  Cic.    Mihl  neglegentl  esse  non  licuit,3  it  was 
Cic. 


NOTE. — A  noun  or  adjective  predicated  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  Dative  is  some- 
times put  in  the  Accusative : 

El  consulem  fieri  licet,  it  is  lawful  for  him  to  be  made  consul.  Caes. 

537.  The  TENSES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE — Present,  Perfect,  and 
Future — denote  only  relative  time.  They  accordingly  represent  the 
time  respectively  as  present,  past,  or  future,  relatively  to  that  of 
the  principal  verb : 

PRESENT.— Cupio  me  esse  clementern,  I  desire  to  be  mild.  Cic.  Maluit  se 
diligl  quam  metui,  he  preferred  to  be  loved  rather  than  feared.  Nep. 

PERFECT.— Platonem  ferunt  in  Italiam  venisse,  they  say  that  Plato  came 
into  Italy.  Cic.  Conscius  mihl  eram,  nihil  a  me  commissum  esse,  I  was  con- 
scious to  myself  that  no  offence  had  been  committed  by  me.  Cic. 

FUTURE.— Brutum  visum  Irl  a  me  puto,  /  think  Brutus  will  be  seen  by  me. 

1  Historical  Infinitives  are  generally  used  in  groups,  seldom  singly. 

2  Here  Phldiam  is  predicated  of  me  (lit.,  me  to  be  Phidias),  and  caecum  of  ffo- 
merum. 

3  Tribuno  is  predicated  ofpatrieid,  and  neglegentl  ofmi?a. 


312  INFINITIVE. 

Cic.    Oraculum  datum  erat  victrices  Athenas  fore,  an  oracle  had  been  given^ 
that  Athens  would  be  victorious.   Cic. 

NOTE.— In  general,  the  Present  Infinitive  represents  the  action  as  taking  place  at  the 
time  denoted  by  the  principal  verb,  the  Perfect  as  then  completed  or  past,  and  the  Fu- 
ture as  then  about  to  take  place  ;  but  tense  is  so  imperfectly  developed  in  the  Infinitive 
that  even  relative  time  is  not  marked  with  much  exactness.  Hence — 

1)  The  Present  is  sometimes  used  of  future  actions,  and  sometimes  with  little  or  no 
reference  to  time : 

Cras  argentum  dare  dixit,  he  said  that  he  would  give  the  silver  to-morrow.  Ter, 

2)  The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used  of  present  actions,  though  chiefly  in  the  poets : 
Tetigisse  timent  poetam,  they  fear  to  touch  (to  have  touched)  the  poet.  Hor. 

1.  After  the  past  tenses  ofdebed,  oportet,  possum,  and  the  like,  the  PRES- 
ENT INFINITIVE  is  used  where  our  idiom  would  lead  us  to  expect  the  Perfect ; 
sometimes  also  after  meminl,  and  the  like ;  regularly  in  recalling  what  we 
have  ourselves  experienced : 

Debuit  ofiiciosior  esse,  he  ought  to  Jtave  been  more  attentive.  Cic.  Id  potuit 
facere,  he  might  have  done  this.  Cic.  Me  Athenis  audlre  meinim,  I  remember 
to  have  heard  (hearing)  in  Athens.  Cic. 

2.  The  Perfect  Passive  Infinitive  sometimes  denotes  the  result  of  the  ac- 
tion.   Thus,  doctus  esse  may  mean  either  to  have  been  instructed  or  to  be  a 
learned  man  (lit.,  an  instructed  man).    If  the  result  thus  denoted  belongs  to 
past  time^fuisse  must  take  the  place  of  esse : 

Populum  alloquitur,  sopltum  fuisse  regem  Ictu,  she  addresses  the  people, 
saying  that  the  Icing  was  stunned  by  the  blow.  Liv.  See  also  471,  6,  note  1. 

3.  Instead  of  the  regular  Future  Infinitive,  the  PERIPHRASTIC  FORM,  futu- 
rum  esse  ut,  or  fore  ut,  with  the  Subjunctive,  Present  or  Imperfect,  is  fre- 
quently used : 

Spero  fore  ut  contingat  id  nobls,  I  hope  this  will  fall  to  our  lot  (I  hope  it 
will  come  to  pass  that  this  may  happen  to  us).  Cic.  Non  speraverat  Hanni- 
bal, fore  ut  ad  se  deficerent,  Hannibal  had  not  hoped  that  they  would  revolt 
to  him.  Liv. 

NOTE  1. — This  circumlocution  is  common  in  the  Passive,  and  is  moreover  necessary 
in  both  voices  in  all  verbs  which  want  the  Supine  and  the  participle  in  rus. 

NOTE  2.— Sometimes  fore  ut  with  the  Subjunctive,  Perfect  or  Pluperfect,  is  used  with 
the  force  of  a  Future  Perfect ;  and  in  passive  and  deponent  verbs,  fore  with  the  perfect 
participle  may  be  used  with  the  same  force : 

Died  me  satis  adeptum  fore,  I  say  that  I  shall  have  obtained  enough.  Cic. 

538.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject,  is  often  used  as 
the  subject  of  a  verb  i1 

WITH  SUBJECT. — Caesarl  nuntiatum  est  equites  accedere,  it  was  announced 
to  Caesar  that  the  cavalry  was  approaching.  Caes.  Facinus  est  vinclr!  clvem 
Eomanum,  that  a  Eoman  citizen  should  be  bound  is  a  crime.  Cic.  Certum 

1  This  use  of  the  Infinitive  as  subject  was  readily  developed  out  of  its  use  as  object; 
see  534, 1,  foot-note.  Thus  the  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject,  finally  came  to  be 
regarded  as  an  indeclinable  noun,  and  was  accordingly  used  not  only  as  subject  and 
object,  but  also  as  predicate  and  appositive  (539, 1.  and  II.),  and  sometimes  even  in 
the  Ablative  Ateofate  (539,  IV,),  aocl  in  dependence  upon  prepoBitlona  (583, 8,  note  4), 


INFINITIVE.  313 

est  llberos  amarl,  it  is  certain  that  children  are  loved.  Quint.    Legem  brevcm 
esse  oportet,  it  is  necessary  that  a  laiu  be  brief.   Sen. 

WITHOUT  SUBJECT. — Decretum  est  non  dare  signum,  it  was  decided  not  to 
give  the  signal.  Liv.  Ars  est  difficilis  rem  publicam  regere,  to  rule  a  state  is 
a  difficult  art.  Cic.  Carum  esse  jucundum  est,  it  is  pleasant  to  be  held  dear. 
Cic.  Haec  sclre  juvat,  to  know  these  things  affords  pleasure.  Sen.  Peccare 
licet  nemini,  to  sin  is  lawful  for  no  one.  Cic. 

1.  When  the  subject  is  an  Infinitive,  the  predicate  is  either  (1)  a  noun  or 
adjective  with  sum,  or  (2)  a  verb  used  impersonally ;  see  the  examples  above. 

2.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject,  may  be  the  subject  of  another 
Infinitive : 

Intellegl  necesse  est  esse  deos,1  it  must  be  understood  that  there  are  gods. 
Cic. 

3.  The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  a  demonstrative  as  an  attributive  in 
agreement  with  it : 

Quibusdam  hoc  displicet  philosopharl,  this  pJiilosophizing  (this  to  philos- 
ophize) displeases  some  persons.  Cic.  Vlvere  ipsum  turpe  est  nobls,  to  live 
is  itself  ignoble  for  us.  Cic. 

539.  SPECIAL  CONSTRUCTIONS.— The  Infinitive  with  a  subject 2 
is  sometimes  used — 

I.  As  a  PREDICATE  ;  see  362 : 

Exitus  fuit  orationis  sibl  nullam  cum  his  amicitiam  esse,2  the  close  of  his 
oration  was  that  lie  had  no  friendship  with  these.  Caes. 

NOTE.— An  Infinitive  without  a  subject  may  be  used  as  a  Predicate  Nominative : 
Yivere  est  cogitare,  to  live  is  to  think.  Cic. 

II.  As  an  APPOSITIVE  ;  see  363 : 

Oraculum  datum  erat  victrlces  Athenas  fore,  an  oracle  had  been  given, 
that  Athens  would  be  victorious.  Cic.  Illud  soleo  mlrarl,  non  me  accipere 
tuas  lltteras,3  /  am  accustomed  to  wonder  at  this,  that  I  do  not  receive  your 
letter.  Cic. 

III.  In  EXCLAMATIONS  ;  see  381 : 

Te  sic  vexari,  that  you  should  be  thus  troubled!  Cic.  Mene  incepto  de- 
sistere  vlctam,  that  I,  vanquished,  should  abandon  my  undertaking  !  4  Verg. 

IY.  In  the  ABLATIVE  ABSOLUTE  ;  see  431,  note  1 : 

Audlto  Darium  movisse  pergit,  having  heard  that  Darius  had  withdrawn 
(that  Darius  had  withdrawn  having  been  heard),  he  advanced.  Curt. 

1  Esse  deos  is  the  subject  of  intellegl,  and  intellegl  esse  deos  of  est. 

2  Including  the  modifiers  of  each.    Thus  in  the  example  the  whole  clause,  sibl  nul- 
lam cum  his  amicitiam  esse,  is  used  as  a  Predicate  Nominative  in  agreement  with  the 
subject  exitus;  see  363. 

3  In  the  examples,  the  clause  victrlces  Athenas  fore  is  in  apposition  with  braculum, 
and  the  clause  non  me  accipere  tuas  lltteras,  in  apposition  with  illud. 

4  This  use  of  the  Infinitive  conforms,  it  will  be  observed,  to  the  use  of  the  Accusative 
and  Nominative  in  exclamations  (331,  with  note  3). 


314  GERUNDS. 

II.  SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES. 

540.  In  Latin,  clauses  which  are  used  as  substantives  take  one  of 
four  forms.     They  may  be — 

I.  INDIRECT  QUESTIONS: 

Quaeritur,  cur  dissentiant,  U  is  asked  why  they  disagree.  Cic.    Quid  agen- 
dum sit,  nescio,  /  do  not  know  what  ought  to  be  done.   Cic. 
NOTE.— For  the  use  of  Indirect  Questions,  see  539, 1. 

II.  INFINITIVE  CLAUSES: 

Antecellere  contigit,  it  ivas  his  good  fortune  to  excel  (to  excel  happened). 
Cic.    Magna  negotia  voluit  agere,  he  wished  to  achieve  great  undertakings.  Cic. 
NOTE.— For  the  use  of  Infinitive  Clauses,  see  534;  535. 

III.  SUBJUNCTIVE  CLAUSES,  generally  introduced  by  ut,  ne,  etc. : 
Contigit  ut  patriam  vindicaret,  it  was  his  good  fortune  to  save  his  country. 

Nep.    Vol6  ut  mihl  respondeas,  I  wish  you  would  answer  me.  Cic. 

NOTE.— For  the  use  of  such  Subjunctive  Clauses,  see  498;  499,  8;  501. 

IY.  CLAUSES  INTRODUCED  BY  quod: 

Beneficium  est  quod  necesse  est  morl,  it  is  a  blessing  that  it  is  necessary  to 
die.  Sen.  GaudeO  quod  te  interpellavl,  /  rejoice  that  (because)  I  have  inter- 
rupted you.  Cic. 

NOTE.— Quod-clauses,  used  substantively,  either  give  prominence  to  the  fact  stated, 
or  present  it  as  a  ground  or  reason.  They  are  used  as  the  subject  of  impersonal  verbs, 
and  as  the  object  of  many  transitive  verbs,  especially  of  such  as  denote  emotion  or  feel- 
ing : l 

Hue  accedebat  quod  exercitum  luxuriose  habuerat,  to  this  was  added  the  fact  that 
he  had  kept  the  army  in  luxury.  Sail.  Adde  quod  ingenuas  didicisse  artes  emollit 
mores,  add  the  fact  that  to  learn  liberal  arts  refines  manners.  Ovid.  Bene  facis  quod 
me  adjuvas,  you  do  well  that  you  assist  me.  Cic.  Dolebam  quod  socium  amiseram,  1 
was  grieving  because  Ihad  lost  a  companion.  Cic.  See  also  535,  III.,  note. 

SECTION   VIII. 

GERUNDS,  GERUNDIVES,2  SUPINES,   AND  PARTICIPLES. 

I.  GERUNDS. 

541 .  The  GERUND  is  a  verbal  noun  which  shares  so  largely  the 
character  of  a  verb  that  it  governs  oblique  cases,  and  takes  ad- 
verbial modifiers : 

1  Quod-clauses  occur— (1)  as  the  subject  of  accedit,  accidit,  appdret,  evenit,  fit, 
nocet,  obest,  occurrit,  prodest,  etc. ;  also  of  est  with  a  noun  or  adjective,  as  causa  est, 
vitium  est,  etc.,  grdtum  est,  indlgnum  est,  mlrum  est,  etc. ;  and  (2)  as  dependent  upon 
accuBO,  addo,  adiceo  (p.  20,  foot-note  1),  admlror,  animadverto,  angor,  bene  facio, 
delector,  doled,  excu&d,facid,  gaudeo,  glorior,  laetor,  mlror,  mitts,  omitto,  praetereO, 
queror,  etc.  They  are  sometimes  used  like  the  Accusative  of  Specification.  See  516, 
2,  note, 

*  The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive  were  originally  identical,    The  former  is  the  neu- 


GERUNDS.  315 

Jus  vocandl l  senatum,  the  right  of  summoning  the  senate.  Liv,  Beats 
Vivendi l  cupiditas,  the  desire  of  living  happily.  Cic. 

NOTE.— In  a  few  instances  the  Gerund  has  apparently  a  passive  meaning: 
Neque  habent  propriam  percipiendl  notam,  nor  have  they  any  proper  mark  of  dis- 
tinction (i.  e.,  to  distinguish  them).  Cic. 

542.  The  GERUND  has  four  cases — the  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusa- 
tive, and  Ablative — used  in  general  like  the  same  cases  of  nouns. 
Thus— 

I.  The  GENITIVE  OF  THE  GERUND  is  used  with  nouns  and  adjectives : 2 
Ars  Vivendi,  the  art  of  living.   Cic.     Studiosus  erat  audiendl,  he  was  de- 
sirous of  hearing.  Nep.    Cupidus  te  audiendl,  desirous  of  hearing  you.  Cic. 
Artem  vera  ac  falsa  dljudicandi,  the  art  of  distinguishing  true  things  from 
false.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— The  Gerund  usually  governs  the  same  case  as  the  verb,  but  sometimes,  by 
virtue  of  its  substantive  nature,  it  governs  the  Genitive,  especially  the  Genitive  of  per- 
sonal pronouns— mel,  nostrl,  tul,  vestri,  sul : 

Copia  placandi  tui  (of  a  woman),  an  opportunity  of  appeasing  you.  Ov.  Sul  con- 
servandi  causa,  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  themselves.  Cic.  Vestri  adhortandl 
causa,  for  the  purpose  of  esehorting  you.  Liv.  Keiciendi 3  judicum  potestas,  the  power 
of  challenging  (of)  the  judges.  Cic.  Lucis  tuendi  copia,  the  privilege  of  beholding  the 
light.  Plant. 

NOTE  2.— The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  purpose  or  ten- 
dency: 

Leges  pellendi  claros  viros,  laws  for  (lit.,  of)  driving  away  illustrious  men.  Tac. 

II.  The  DATIVE  OP  THE  GERUND  is  used  with  a  few  verbs  and  adjectives 
which  regularly  govern  the  Dative : 

Cum  solvendo  non  essent,  since  they  were  not  able  to  pay.  Cic.  Aqua 
utilis  est  bibendo,  water  is  useful  for  drinking.  Plin. 

NOTE.— The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  is  rare;  *  with  an  object  it  occurs  only  in  Plautus. 

III.  The  ACCUSATIVE  OF  THE  GERUND  is  used  after  a  few  prepositions : 5 
Ad  discendum  propensl  sumus,  we  are  inclined  to  learn  (to  learning).  Cic. 

Inter  ludendum,  in  or  during  play.  Quint. 

ter  of  a  participle  used  substantively,  while  the  latter  is  that  same  participle  used  adjec- 
tively.  Moreover,  from  this  participle  the  Gerund  developed  an  active  meaning  and  the 
Gerundive  a  passive.  On  the  Origin  and  Use  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives,  see  Jolly, 
4  Geschichte  des  Infinitivs,'  pp.  198-200 ;  Draeger,  II.,  pp.  789-828. 

1  Vocandl  as  a  Genitive  is  governed  by  jus,  and  yet  it  governs  the  Accusative  sena- 
tum ;  vlvendl  is  governed  by  cupiditds,  and  yet  it  takes  the  adverbial  modifier  oedte. 

2  The  adjectives  which  take  the  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  are  chiefly  those  denoting 
DESIRE,  KNOWLEDGE,  SKILL,  RECOLLECTION,  and  their  opposites .'  avidus,  cupidus,  stu- 
dioaus;  conscius,  gndrus,  Igndrus;  perltus,  imperltus,  insuetus,  etc. 

3  Pronounced  as  if  written  rejiciendl;  see  p.  20,  foot-note  1. 

*  According  to  Jolly,  'Geschichte  des  Infinitivs,'  p.  200,  the  Gerund  originally  had 
only  one  case,  the  Dative,  and  was  virtually  an  Infinitive. 

6  Most  frequently  after  ad ;  sometimes  after  inter  and  ob ;  very  rarely  after  ante^ 
circa,  and  in. 


316  GERUNDIVES. 

NOTE  1. — The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  with  a  direct  object  is  rare : 
Ad  placandum  deos  pertinet,  it  tends  to  appease  the  gods.  Cic. 
NOTE  2. — The  Gerund  with  ad  often  denotes  purpose : 

Ad  imitandum  mih!  propositum  est  exemplar  illud,  that  model  ha8  been  set  before 
me  for  imitation.  Cic. 

IV.  The  ABLATIVE  OP  THE  GERUND  is  used  (1)  as  Ablative  of  Means, 
and  (2)  with  prepositions : ! 

Mens  discendo  alitur,  the  mind  is  nourished  by  learning.  Cic.  Salutem 
hominibus  dando,  by  giving  safety  to  men.  Cic.  Virtutes  cernuntur  in 
agendo,  virtues  are  seen  in  action.  Cic.  Deterrere  a  scrlbendo,  to  deter  from 
writing.  Gic. 

NOTE  1. — After  prepositions,  the  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  with  a  direct  object  is  ex- 
ceedingly rare : 

In  tribuendo  suum  cuique,  in  giving  every  one  his  own.  Cic. 

NOTE  2.— Without  a  preposition,  the  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  denotes  in  a  few  in- 
stances some  other  relation  than  that  of  means,  as  time,  separation,  etc. : 

Incipiendo  refugi,  /  drew  back  in  the  very  beginning.  Cic. 

II.  GERUNDIVES. 

543.  The  GERUNDIVE,  like  other  participles,  agrees  with  nouns 
and  pronouns : 

Inita  sunt  consilia  urbis  delendae,  plans  have  been  formed  for  destroying  the 
city  (of  the  city  to  be  destroyed).  Cic.  Numa  sacerdotibus  creandls  animum 
adjecit,  Numa  gave  his  attention  to  the  appointment  of  priests.  Liv. 

NOTE.— A  noun  (or  pronoun)  and  a  Gerundive  in  agreement  with  it  form  the  Ge- 
rundive Construction. 

544.  The  GERUNDIVE  CONSTRUCTION  may  be  used — 

1.  In  place  of  a  Gerund  with  a  direct  object.     It  then  takes  the  case 
of  the  Gerund  whose  place  it  supplies : 

Libido  ejus  videndl  (=  Hbld5  cum  videndl),  the  desire  of  seeing  him  (lit., 
of  him  to  be  seen).  Cic.  Platonis  audiendl  (=  Platonem  audiendl)  studiosus, 
fond  of  hearing  Plato.  Cic.  Legendls  oratoribus  (=  legendo  oratores),  by 
reading  the  orators.  Cic. 

NOTE.— The  Gerundive  Construction  should  not  be  used  for  the  Gerund  with  a  neu- 
ter pronoun  or  adjective  as  object,  as  it  could  not  distinguish  the  gender : 

Artem  vera  ac  falsa  dijudicandl,  the  art  of  distinguishing  true  things  from  false. 
Cic. 

2.  In  the  Dative  and  in  the  Ablative  with  a  preposition  : 

Locum  oppido  condendo  ceperunt,  they  selected  a  place  for  founding  a  city. 
Liv.  Tempora  demetendis  fructibus  accommodata,  seasons  suitable  for  gath- 
ering fruits.  Cic.  Brutus  in  llberanda  patria  est  interfectus,  Brutus  was  slain 
in  liberating  his  country.  Cic. 

1  The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  most  frequently  after  a  (ab),  de,  ex  (e),  in; 
rarely  after  cum,  pro,  and  super. 


SUPINES.  317 

NOTE  1.— Tho  learner  will  remember  that  in  the  Dative  (543,  II.,  note)  and  in  the 
Ablative  with  a  preposition  (543,  IT.,  note  1)  the  Gerund  with  a  direct  object  is  ex- 
ceedingly rare.  The  Gerundive  Construction  supplies  its  place. 

NOTE  2.— The  Gerundive  Construction  sometimes  denotes  purpose  or  tendency,  es- 
pecially in  the  Accusative  after  verbs  of  giving,  permitting,  taking,  etc. : 

Attribuit  Italiam  vastandam  (for  ad  vastandum)  Catilinae,  he  assigned  Italy  to  Cat- 
iline to  ravage  (to  be  ravaged).  Cic.  Finnandae  valetiidini  in  Campaniam  concessit, 
he  withdrew  into  Campania  to  confirm  his  health.  Tac.  Haec  tradendae  Hannibal! 
victoriae  sunt,  tJiese  things  are  for  the  purpose  of  giving  victory  to  Hannibal.  Liv. 
Proficiscitur  cognoscendae  antiquitatis,  he  sets  out  for  the  purpose  of  studying  antiq- 
uity. Tac. 

NOTE  8.— The  Gerundive  Construction  in  the  Dative  occurs  after  certain  official 
names,  as  decemviri,  triumviri,  comitia : l 

Decemviros  legibus  scribendls  creavimus,  we  have  appointed  a  committee  of  ten  to 
prepare  laws.  Liv. 

NOTE  4. — The  Gerundive  Construction  in  the  Ablative  occurs  after  comparatives : 

Nullum  officium  referenda  gratia  magis  necessarium  est,  no  duty  is  more  necessary 
than  that  of  returning  a  favor.  Cic. 

NOTE  5. — The  Gerundive  Construction  is  in  general  admissible  only  in  transitive 
verbs,  but  it  occurs  in  utor,fruor,fungor,  potior,  etc.,  originally  transitive  : 

Ad  mfinus  mngendum,  for  discharging  the  duty.  Cic.  Spes  potiundorum  castro- 
rum,  the  hope  of  getting  possession  of  the  camp.  Caes. 

III.  SUPINES. 

545.  The  SUPINE,  like  the  Gerund,  is  a  verbal  noun.     It  has  a 
form  in  um  and  a  form  in  u. 

NOTE  l.—The  Supine  in  um  is  an  Accusative;  that  in  u  is  generally  an  Ablative, 
though  sometimes  perhaps  a  Dative.2 

NOTE  2.— The  Supine  in  um  governs  the  same  case  as  the  verb : 

Legatos  mittunt  rogatum  auxilium,  they  send  ambassadors  to  ask  aid.  Caes. 

RULE  LIX.— Supine  in  Um. 

546.  The  Supine  in  um  is  used  with  verbs  of  motion 
to  express  PURPOSE  : 

Legati  venerunt  res  repetltum,  deputies  came  to  demand  restitution.  Liv. 
Ad  Caesarem  congratulatum  convenerunt,  they  came  to  Caesar  to  congrat- 
ulate him.  Caes. 

1.  The  Supine  in  um  occurs  in  a  few  instances  after  verbs  which  do  not  directly  ex- 
press motion : 

Filiam  Agrippae  nuptum  dedit,  he  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Agrippa. 
Suet. 

2.  The  Supine  in  um  with  the  verb  eO  is  equivalent  to  the  forms  of  the  first  Periphras- 
tic Conjugation,  and  may  often  be  rendered  literally : 

Bonos  omnes  perditum  eunt,  they  are  going  to  destroy  all  the  good.  Sail. 

1  But  in  most  instances  the  Dative  may  be  explained  as  dependent  either  upon  the 
verb  or  upon  the  predicate  as  a  whole;  see  384,  4. 

2  See  Ilubschmann,  p.  223;  Draeger,  II.,  p.  838;  Jolly,  p.  201. 


318  PARTICIPLES. 

NOTE.— But  in  subordinate  clauses  the  Supine  in  um  with  the  verb  eo  is  often  used 
for  the  simple  verb : 

Ultum  ire  (=  ulciscl)  injurias  festinat,  he  hastens  to  avenge  the  injuries.  Sail. 

8.  The  Supine  in  um  with  Irl,  the  Infinitive  Passive  of  eo,  forms,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered (332,  III.,  1),  the  Future  Passive  Infinitive: 

Brutum  visum  In  a  me  put6, 1  think  Brutus  will  be  seen  by  me.  Cic. 

4.  The  Supine  in  um  is  not  very  common ;  *  but  purpose  may  be  denoted  by  other 
constructions : 

1)  By  ut  or  qul  icith  th&  Subjunctive;  see  497. 

2)  By  Gerunds  or  Gerundives;  see  542, 1.,  note  2,  and  III.,  note  2;  544, 2,  note  2. 
8)  By  Participles;  see  549,  8. 

RULE  LX.— Supine  in  u. 

547.  The  Supine  in  u  is  generally  used  as  an  Ablative 
of  Specification  (424) : 

Quid  est  tarn  jucundum  auditu,  what  is  so  agreeable  to  hear  (in  hearing)  ? 
Cic.  Difficile  dictu  est,  U  is  difficult  to  tell.  Cic.  De  genere  mortis  difficile 
dictu  est,  it  is  difficult  to  speak  of  the  kind  of  death.  Cic.  Civitas  incredi- 
bile  memoratu  est  quantum  creverit,  it  is  incredible  to  relate  how  much  the 
state  increased.  Sail. 

NOTE.— The  Supine  in  u  never  governs  an  oblique  case,  but  it  may  take  an  Ablative 
with  a  preposition,  as  in  the  third  example  above. 

1.  The  Supine  in  u  is  used  chiefly  with  jucundus,  optimus  ;  fatilis,  procllms,  dif- 
ficilis  ;  incredibiUs,  memordbilis  ;  honestus,  turpis  ;  dlgnus,  indlgnus  ;  fas,  nefds, 
opus,  and  scelus. 

2.  The  Supine  in  u  is  very  rare.    The  most  common  examples  are  auditu,  dictu, 
factu,  natu,  vlsti;  less  common,  cognitu,  intellects,  inventu,  memoratu,  reldtu, 
ecltu,  tractatu,  wctu* 

IV.  PARTICIPLES. 

*548.  The  PARTICIPLE  is  a  verbal  adjective  which  governs  the 
same  cases  as  the  verb  : 

Animus  se  non  videns  alia  cernit,  the  mind,  though  it  does  not  see  itself 
(lit.,  not  seeing  itself},  discerns  other  things.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— For  Participles  used  substantively,  see  441. 

NOTE  2.— Participles  used  substantively  sometimes  retain  the  adverbial  modifiers 
which  belonged  to  them  as  participles,  and  sometimes  take  adjective  modifiers  : 

Non  tarn  praemia  sequi  recte  factorum  quam  ipsa  recte  facta,  not  to  seek  the  rewards 
of  good  deeds  (things  rightly  done)  so  much  a*  good  deeds  themselves.  Cic.  Praecla- 
rum  atque  divlnum  factum,  an  excellent  and  divine  deed.  Cic. 

549.  PARTICIPLES  are  often  used — 
1.  To  denote  TIME,  CAUSE,  MANNER,  MEANS: 

1  According  to  Draeger,  II.,  p.  829,  the  Supine  in  um  is  found  in  only  two  hundred 
and  thirty-six  verbs,  mostly  of  the  First  and  Third  Conjugations. 

2  According  to  Draeger,  II.,  p.  833,  the  Supine  in  u  is  found  in  one  hundred  and  nine 
verbs. 


PARTICIPLES.  319 

Plato  scrlbens  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while  writing.  Cic.  Ituri  in  proe- 
lium  canunt,  they  sing  when  about  to  go  into  battle.  Tac.  Sol  oriens  diem 
conficit,  the  sun  by  its  rising  causes  the  day.  Cic.  Mllites  renuntiant,  se  per- 
fidiam  veritos  revertisse,  the  soldiers  report  that  they  returned  because  they 
feared  perfidy  (having  feared).  Caes. 

2.  To  denote  CONDITION  or  CONCESSION  : 

Mendaci  hominl  ne  verum  quidem  dicentl  credere  non  solemus,  we  are 
not  wont  to  believe  a  liar,  even  if  he  speaks  the  truth.  Cic.  Eeluctante  natura, 
irritus  labor  est,  if  nature  opposes,  effort  is  vain.  Sen.  Scripta  tua  jam  diu 
exspectans,  non  audeo  tamen  fiagitare,  though  I  have  been  long  expecting  your 
work,  yet  I  do  not  dare  to  ash  for  it.  Cic. 

3.  To  denote  PURPOSE  : 

Perseus  rediit,  belli  casum  tentaturus,  Perseus  returned  to  try  (about  to 
try)  the  fortune  of  war.  Liv.  Attribuit  nos  trucldandos  Cethego,  he  assigned 
us  to  Cethegus  to  slaughter.  Cic. 

4.  To  supply  the  place  of  RELATIVE  CLAUSES  : 

Omnes  aliud  agentes,  aliud  simulantes,  improbl  sunt,  all  who  do  one  thing 
and  pretend  another  are  dishonest.  Cic. 

5.  To  supply  the  place  of  PRINCIPAL  CLAUSES  : 

Classem  devlctam  cepit,  he  conquered  and  toolc  the  fled  (took  the  fleet  con- 
quered). Nep.  Re  consentientes,  vocabulis  differebant,  they  agreed  in  fact, 
but  differed  in  words.  Cic. 

NOTE  1.— A  participle  with  a  negative  is  often  best  rendered  by  a  participial  noun 
and  the  preposition  without: 

Miserum  est,  nibil  proficientem  angi,  it  is  sad  to  be  troubled  'without  accomplish- 
ing anything.  Cic.  Non  erubescens,  without  blushing.  Cic. 

NOTE  2. — The  perfect  participle  is  often  best  rendered  by  a  participial  or 
verbal  noun  with  of  : 

Homerus  fuit  ante  Romam  conditam,  Homer  lived  (was)  before  the  found- 
ing of  Rome  (before  Rome  founded).  Cic. 

550.  The  TENSES  OF  THE  PARTICIPLE — Present,  Perfect,  and 
Future — denote  only  relative  time.  They  accordingly  represent 
the  time  respectively  as  present,  past,  and  future  relatively  to  that 
of  the  principal  verb  : 

Oculus  se  non  videns  alia  cernit,  the  eye,  though  it  does  not  see  itself  (not 
seeing  itself),  discerns  other  things.  Cic.  Platd  scrlbens  mortuus  est,  Plato 
died  while  writing.  Cic.  Uva  maturata  dulcescit,  the  grape,  when  it  has 
ripened  (having  ripened),  becomes  sweet.  Cic.  Sapiens  bona  semper  placitura 
laudat,  the  wise  man  praises  blessings  which  will  always  please  (being  about  to 
please).  Sen. 

NOTE  1.— The  perfect  participle,  both  in  deponent  and  in  passive  verbs,  is  sometimes 
used  of  present  time,  and  sometimes  in  passive  verbs  it  loses  in  a  great  degree  its  force 
as  a  tense,  and  is  best  rendered  by  a  verbal  noun: 


320  PAKTICLZS. 

Eisdem  ducibus  usus  Numidas  mittit,  employing  the  same  persons  as  guides,  he 
sent  the  Numidians.  Caes.  Incensas  perfert  naves,  he  reports  the  burning  of  the 
ships  (the  ships  set  on  fire).  Verg.  See  also  544. 

NOTE  2.— In  the  compound  tenses  the  perfect  participle  often  becomes  virtually  a 
predicate  adjective  expressing  the  result  of  the  action  : 

Causae  sunt  cognitae,  the  causes  are  known.  Caes.    See  also  471,  6,  note  1. 

NOTE  3.— For  the  Perfect  Participle  with  habcO,  see  388, 1,  note. 

NOTE  4.— The  want  of  a  perfect  active  participle  is  sometimes  supplied  by  a  temporal 
clause,  and  sometimes  by  &  perfect  passive  participle  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  : 

Caesar,  postquam  venit,  Khenum  translre  constituit,  Caesar,  Jiaving  arrived,  de- 
cided to  cross  the  Shine.  Caes.  Equitatu  praemisso  subsequebatur,  having  sent  for- 
ward his  cavalry,  he  followed.  Caes.  See  also  431 ;  519. 

NOTE  5. — The  want  of  a  present  passive  participle  is  generally  supplied  by  a  tem- 
poral clause : 

Cum  a  Catone  laudabar,  reprehendl  me  a  ceteris  patiebar,  being  praised  by  Cato,  1 
allowed  myself  to  be  censured  by  the  others.  Cic. 


CHAPTEE    VI. 
SYNTAX  OF   PARTICLES. 


RULE  LXI.— Use  of  Adverbs. 

551.  Adverbs  qualify  VERBS,  ADJECTIVES,  and   other 
ADVEEBS : 

Sapientes  fellciter  vlvunt,  the  wise  live  happily.  Cic.     Facile  doctissimus, 
unquestionably  the  most  learned.  Cic.     Haud  aliter,  not  otherwise.  Verg. 

NOTE  1.— For  predicate  adverbs  with  sum,  see  36O,  note  2 ;  for  adverbs  with 
nouns  used  adjectively,  see  441,  3;  for  adverbs  in  place  of  adjectives,  see  443,  notes 

3  and  4;  for  adverbs  with  participles  used  substantively,  see  548,  note  2. 

NOTE  2.— Sic  and  ita  mean  'so,1  'thus.1    Ita  has  also  a  limiting  sense,  'in  so  far,1  as 
in  ita— si  (507,  8,  note  2).    Adeo  means  'to  such  a  degree  or  result' ;  tarn,  tantopere, 

4  so  much'— -torn  used  mostly  with  adjectives  and  adverbs,  and  tantopere  with  verbs. 

552.  The  common  negative  particles  are  non,  ne,  baud. 

1.  Non  is  the  usual  negative;  ne  is  used  in  prohibitions,  wishes,  and  purposes  (483, 
3 ;  488;  497),  and  haud,  in  haud  scid  an,  and  with  adjectives  and  adverbs :  haud  ml- 
rdbile,  not  wonderful ;  haud  aliter,  not  otherwise.    Nl  for  ne  is  rare.    Ne  non  after 
vide  is  often  best  rendered  whether. 

2.  In  non  modo  non  and  in  non  solum  non  the  second  non  is  generally  omitted  be- 
fore sed  or  verum,  followed  by  ne—quidem  or  via  (rarely  etiam),  when  the  verb  of  the 
second  clause  belongs  also  to  the  first : 

Assentatid  non  modo  amico,  sed  ne  llbcro  quidem  dlgna  est,  flattery  is  not  only  not 
worthy  of  a  friend,  but  not  even  of  a  free  man.  Cic. 

3.  Minus  often  has  nearly  the  force  of  non;  si  minus  =  si  non.    Sin  aliter  has 
nearly  the  same  force  as  si  minus.    Mlnime  often  means  '  not  at  all,'  'by  no  means.' 


CONJUNCTIONS.  321 

553.  Two  NEGATIVES  are  generally  equivalent  to  an  affirma- 
tive, as  in  English : 

Nihil  non  arroget,  let  Mm  claim  everything.  Hor.  Neque  hoc  Zen§  n6n 
vldit,  nor  did  Zeno  overlook  this.  Cic. 

1.  Non  before  a  general  negative  gives  it  the  force  of  an  indefinite  affirmative,  but 
after  such  negative  the  force  of  a  general  affirmative : 

Nonnem6,  some  one;          nonnihil,  something;          nonnunquam,  sometimes; 
Nemd  non,  every  one;         nihil  non,  everything ;        nunquam  non,  always. 

2.  After  a  general  negative,  ne—quidem  gives  emphasis  to  the  negation,  and  neque 
*— neque,  neve — neve,  and  the  like,  repeat  the  negation  distributively : 

Non  praetereundum  est  ne  id  quidem,  we  must  not  pass  ~by  even  this.  Cic.    Nemo 
unquam  neque  poeta  neque  orator  fuit,  no  one  was  ever  either  a  poet  or  an  orator.  Cic. 
NOTE— For  the  Use  of  Prepositions,  see  433-435. 

554.  COORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  unite  similar   constructions 
(309,  1).     They  comprise  five  classes. 

I.  COPULATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  UNION  : 

Castor  et  Pollux,  Castor  and  Pollux.  Cic.  Senatus  populusque,  the  senate 
and  people.  Cic.  Nee  erat  difficile,  nor  ivas  it  difficult.  Liv. 

1.  For  list,  see  310, 1. 

2.  Et  simply  connects ;  que  implies  a  more  intimate  relationship ;  atque  and  dc  gen- 
erally give  prominence  to  what  follows.    Neque  and  nee  have  the  force  of  et  non.    Et 
and  etiam  sometimes  mean  even. 

NOTE.—  Atque  and  dc  generally  mean  as,  than,  after  adjectives  and  adverbs  of  like- 
ness and  unlikeness:  talisdc,  'such  as';  aeque  dc,  'equally  as';  aliter  atque,  'other- 
wise than.1  See  also  451,  5. 

3.  Que  is  an  enclitic,  and  dc  in  the  best  prose  is  used  only  before  consonants. 

4.  Etiam,  quoque,  adeo,  and  the  like,  are  sometimes  associated  with  et,  atque,  dc, 
and  que,  and  sometimes  even  supply  their  place.    Quoque  follows  the  word  which  it 
connects :  is  quoque,  *  he  also.'    Etiam, '  also,' '  further,'  '  even,'  often  adds  a  new  cir- 
cumstance. 

5.  Sometimes  two  copulatives  are  used :  et—  et,  que— que,1  et—que,  que—et,  que— 
atque,1  turn — turn,  cum — turn, '  both — and ' ;  but  cum — tivm  gives  prominence  to  the  sec- 
ond word  or  clause;  non  sdlum  (non  modo,  or  non  tantum)— sed  etiam  (verum  etiam), 
1  not  only— toit  also ' ;  neque  (nee) — neque  (nee),  'neither— nor';  neque  (nee) — etf(que), 
4  not— but  (and) ' ;  et— neque  (nee),  *  and  not.' 

6.  Between  two  words  connected  copulatively  the  conjunction  is  generally  expressed, 
though  sometimes  omitted,  especially  between  the  names  of  two  colleagues.    Between 
several  words  it  is  in  the  best  prose  generally  repeated  or  omitted  altogether,  though 
que  may  be  used  with  the  last  even  when  the  conjunction  is  omitted  between  the  others : 
pax  et  tranquillitds  et  concordia,  or  pax,  tranquillitds,  concordia,  orpdx,  tranquil- 
litds,  concordiaque. 

NOTE  1,—Et  is  often  omitted  between  conditional  clauses,  except  before  non. 
NOTE  2. — A  series  may  begin  with  prlmum  or  prlmo,  may  be  continued  by  deinde 
followed  by  turn,  posted,  praetered,  or  some  similar  word,  and  may  close  with  deniquc 

1  Que—  que  is  rare,  except  in  poetry;  que— atque,  rare  even  in  poetry;  see  Yerg., 
Aen.,I.,18;  Geor.,  L,  182. 
15 


322  CONJUNCTIONS. 

or  postremo.  *    Deinde  may  be  repeated  several  times  between  prlmum  and  denique  or 
postremo.^ 

II.  DISJUNCTIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  SEPARATION  : 

Ant  vestra  aut  sua  culpa,  either  your  fault  or  his  own.  Liv.  Duabus  tri- 
busve  hOrfs,  in  two  or  three  Tiours.  Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  310,  2. 

2.  Aut  denotes  a  stronger  antithesis  than  vel,  and  must  be  used  if  the  one  supposition 
excludes  the  other:  aut  verum  aut  falsum,  «  either  true  or  false/     Vel  implies  a  differ- 
ence in  the  expression  rather  than  in  the  thing.    It  is  generally  corrective,  and  is  often 
followed  by  potius,  etiam,  or  dlcam  :  lauddtur,  vel  etiam  amdtur, '  he  is  praised,  or 
even  (rather)  loved.1    It  sometimes  means  even,  and  sometimes  for  example.     Velut 
often  means/or  example.     Ve  for  vel  is  appended  as  an  enclitic. 

NOTE. — In  negative  clauses  aut  and  ve  often  continue  the  negation :  nbn  honor  aut 
virtus,  *  neither  (not)  honor  nor  virtue.' 

3.  Slve  (si — ve)  does  not  imply  any  real  difference  or  opposition ;  it  often  connects 
different  names  of  the  same  object :  Pallas  Give  Minerva,  *  Pallas  or  Minerva  *  (another 
name  of  the  same  goddess). 

NOTE.— Disjunctive  conjunctions  are  often  combined  as  correlatives :  aut—  aut,  vel 
— vel,  etc.,  *  either— -or.' 

III.  ADVERSATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  OPPOSITION  or  CONTRAST  : 

CupiO  me  esse  clementem,  sed  me  inertiae  condemns,  /  wish  to  be  mild, 
but  I  condemn  myself  for  inaction.  Cic.  Magnes  ferrum  ad  sS  trahit,  ratiO- 
nem  autem  adferre  non  possumus,  the  magnet  attracts  iron,  'bub  we  can  not 
assign  a  reason.  Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  3 10,  3. 

2.  Sed  and  verum  mark  a  direct  opposition ;  autem  and  vero  only  a  transition ;  at 
emphasizes  the  opposition;  atqui  often  introduces  an  objection;  ceterum  means  'but 
still,'  *  as  to  the  rest ' ;  tamen^ '  yet.' 

NOTE.— Sed  and  verum  are  sometimes  resumptive ;  see  IV.,  3,  below : 
Sed  age,  responde,  but  come,  reply.  Plaut. 

3.  Attamen,  sedtamen,  veruntamen,  'but  yet,'  are  compounds  oftamen. 

4.  Autem  and  vero  are  postpositive,  i.  e.,  they  are  placed  after  one  or  more  words 
in  their  clauses. 

FV.  ILLATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  INFERENCE  :  9 

In  umbra  igitur  ptignabimus,  we  shall  thereforeJlgM  in  the  shade.   Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  310,  4. 

2.  Certain  other  words,  sometimes  classed  with  adverbs  and  sometimes  with  conjunc- 
tions, are  also  illatives,  as  eo,  ideo,  idcirco,  proptered,  quamobrem,  qudpropter,  qudre, 
quocircd. 

8.  Igitur  generally  follows  the  word  which  it  connects:  hie  igitur,  'this  one  there- 
fore.' After  a  digression,  iffitur,  sed,  sed  tamen,  verum,  verum  tamen,  etc.,  are  often 
used  to  resume  an  interrupted  thought  or  construction.  They  may  often  be  rendered  '  I 
say' :  Sed  si  quis,  'if  any  one,  1  say.' 

1  For  examples,  see  Cic.,  Fam.,  XT.,  14;  Div.,  II.,  66. 

2  Cicero,  Inv.,  II.,  49,  has  a  series  of  ten  members  in  which  prlmum  introduces  the 
first  member,  postremd  the  last,  and  dcinde  each  of  the  other  eight. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  323 

V.  CAUSAL  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  CAUSE  : 

Difficile  est  consilium,  sum  enim  solus,  counsel  is  difficult,  for  lam  alone. 
Cic.  Etenim  jus  amant,/0r  they  love  the  right.  Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  3 1O,  5. 

2.  Etenim  and  namque  denote  a  closer  connection  than  enim  and  nam. 

3.  Enim  is  postpositive  ;  see  554,  III.,  4. 

555.  SUBORDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS  connect  subordinate  with 
principal  constructions  (309,  2).  They  comprise  eight  classes. 

I.  TEMPORAL  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  TIME  : 

Paruit  cum  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary.  Cic.  Dum  ego 
in  Sicilia  sum,  while  lam  in  Sicily.  Cic.  See  also  311, 1 ;  518-531. 

I.  Dum  added  to  a  negative  means  yet;  nondwn,  'not  yet';  vixdum,  '  scarcely  yet.' 

II.  COMPARATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  COMPARISON  : 

Ut  optastl,  ita  est,  it  is  as  you  desired.  Cic.  Velut  si  adesset,  as  if  he  were 
present.  Caes.  See  also  311,  2;  513,  II. 

1.  CORRELATIVES  are  often  used  :  Tarn — quam, *  as,'  *  so— as,'  *  as  much— as ' ;  tarn — 
quam  quod  mdxime,  'as  much  as  possible';  non  minus— quam,  'not  less  than';  non 
magis—quam,  'not  more  than.' 

Tarn — quam  and  ut — ita  with  a  superlative  are  sometimes  best  rendered  by  the  with 
the  comparative  :  ut  mdxime—ita  mdxime, '  the  more— the  more.' 

III.  CONDITIONAL  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  CONDITION  : 

Si  peccavi,  ignosce,  if  I  have  erred,  pardon  me.  Cic.  .  Nisi  est  consilium 
domi,  unless  there  is  wisdom  at  Jiome.  Cic.  See  also  311,  3 ;  506-513. 

1.  Nisi,  'if  not,'  in  negative  sentences  often  means  'except' ;  and  nisi  quod, '  except 
that,'  may  be  used  even  in  affirmative  sentences.  Nisi  may  mean '  than.'  Nihil  aUud  nisi 
=  'nothing  further'  (more,  except) ;  nihil  aliud  qua-m  — '  nothing  else'  (other  than). 

IV.  CONCESSIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  CONCESSION: 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  though  they  understand.  Cic.  Etsl  nihil  habeat, 
although  he  has  nothing.  Cic.  See  also  311,  4;  514;  515. 

V.  FINAL  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  PURPOSE  : 

Esse  oportet,  ut  vivas,  it  is  necessary  to  eat,  that  you  may  Uve.  Cic.  See 
also  311,  5  ;  497-499. 

VI.  CONSECUTIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  CONSEQUENCE  or  RESULT  : 
Atticus  ita  vlxit,  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus,  Atticus  so  lived  that 

he  was  very  dear  to  the  Athenians.  Nep.    See  also  311,  6 ;  500-504. 

VII.  CAUSAL  CONJUNCTIONS  denote  CAUSE  : 

Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so.  Cic.   See  also  311,  7 ;  516 ;  517. 

VIII.  INTERROGATIVE  CONJUNCTIONS  or  Particles  denote  INQUIRY  or  QUES- 
TION: 

Quaesieras,  nonne  putarem,  you  had  asked  whether  I  did  not  think.  Cio, 
See  also  311,  8;  351-353;  539. 


324  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

556.  INTERJECTIONS  are  sometimes  used  entirely  alone,  as  eheu, 
i  alas  ! '  and  sometimes  with  certain  cases  of  nouns;  see  381,  with 
note  3. 

557.  Various  parts  of  speech,  and  even  oaths  and  imprecations, 
sometimes  have  the  force  of  interjections : 

Pax  (peace),  be  still!  miserum,  miserable,  sad,  lamentable/  oro,  pray ! 
age,  agite,  come,  well!  mehercules,  by  Hercules!  per  deum  fidem,  in  the 
name  of  the  gods  !  socles  =  si  audes  (for  audies),  if  you  will  hear! 


CHAPTER    VII. 
RULES    OF    SYNTAX. 

558.  For  convenience  of  reference,  the  principal  Rules  of  Syn- 
tax are  here  introduced  in  a  body. 

AGKEEMENT  OF  NOUNS. 

I.  A  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  the  same  person 
or  thing  agrees  with  it  in  CASE  (362) : 

Brutus  custos  libertatis  fuit,  Brutus  was  the  guardian  of  liberty. 

II.  An  Appositive  agrees  in  CASE  with  the  noun  or  pronoun 
which  it  qualifies  (363)  : 

Clullius  rex  moritur,  Cluilius  the  Icing  dies. 

NOMINATIVE.  — VOCATIVE. 

III.  The  Subject  of  a  Finite  verb  is  put  in  the  Nominative  (368) : 
Servius  regnavit,  Servius  reigned. 

IV.  The  Name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  is  put  in  the 
Vocative  (369) : 

Perge,  Laell,  proceed,  LaeUu*. 

ACCUSATIVE. 

V.  The  DIRECT  OBJECT  of  an  action  is  put  in  the  Accusative 
(3T1): 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  G-od  made  (built)  the  world. 

VI.  Verbs  of  MAKING,  CHOOSING,  CALLING,  REGARDING,  SHOW- 
ING, and  the  like,  admit  two  Accusatives  of  the  same  person  or 
thing  (373) : 

Hamilcarem  imperatorem  fecerunt,  they  made  Hamilcar  commander. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX.  325 

VII.  Some  verbs  of  ASKING,  DEMANDING,  TEACHING,  and  CON- 
CEALING admit  two  Accusatives — one  of  the  person  and  the  other 
of  the  thing  (314): 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  lie  asked  me  my  opinion. 

VIII.  A  verb  or  an  adjective  may  take  an  Accusative  to  define 
its  application  (378) : 

Capita  velamur,  we  have  our  Jieads  veiled. 

IX.  DURATION  OF  TIME  and  EXTENT  OF  SPACE  are  expressed  by 
the  Accusative  (319) : 

Septem  et  triginta  regnavit  annos,  Tie  reigned  thirty-seven  years.    Qulnque 
milia  passuum  ambulare,  to  walk  five  miles. 

X.  The  PLACE  TO  WHICH  is  designated  by  the  Accusative  (380) : 

I.  Generally  with  a  preposition— ad  or  in: 

Legiones  ad  urbem  adducit,  Tie  is  leading  the  legions  to  or  toward  the  tity. 

II.  In  names  of  towns  without  a  preposition : 
Nuntius  Eomam  redit,  the  messenger  returns  to  Rome. 

XI.  The  Accusative,  either  with  or  without  an  interjection,  may 
be  used  in  Exclamations  (381) : 

Heu  me  miserum,  ah  me  unhappy! 

DATIVE. 

XII.  The  INDIRECT  OBJECT  of  an  action  is  put  in  the  Dative. 
It  is  used  (384)— 

I.  With  INTRANSITIVE  and  PASSIVE  verbs : 
Tib!  servio,  lam  devoted  to  you. 

II.  With  TRANSITIVE  verbs,  in  connection  with  the  DIRECT  OBJECT  : 
Agros  plebi  dedit,  he  gave  lands  to  the  common  people. 

XIII.  Two  Datives — the  OBJECT  TO  WHICH  and  the  OBJECT  or 
END  FOR  WHICH — occur  with  a  few  verbs  (390) : 

I.  With  INTRANSITIVE  and  PASSIVE  verbs : 

Malo  est  hominibus  avaritia,  avarice  is  an  evil  to  men. 

II.  With  TRANSITIVE  verbs  in  connection  with  the  ACCUSATIVE  : 
Qulnque  cohortes  castris  praesidio  rellquit,  he  left  five  cohorts  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  camp. 

XIV.  With  adjectives,  the  OBJECT  TO  WHICH  the  quality  is  di- 
rected is  put  in  the  Dative  (391) : 

Omnibus  carum  est,  it  is  dear  to  all. 


326  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

XV.  The  Dative  is  used  with  a  few  special  nouns  and  adverbs 
(392): 

I.  With  a  few  nouns  from  verbs  which  take  the  Dative : 
Justitia  est  obtemperatio  legibus,  justice  is  obedience  to  laws. 

II.  With  a  few  adverbs  from  adjectives  which  take  the  Dative : 

Congruenter  naturae  vivere,  to  live  in  accordance  with  nature. 

• 
GENITIVE. 

XVI.  Any  noun,  not  an  Appositive,  qualifying  the  meaning  of 
another  noun,  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (395) : 

CatOnis  6rati6nes,  Goto1*  orations. 

XVII.  Many  adjectives  take  a  Genitive  to  complete  their  mean- 
ing (399): 

Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise. 

XVm.  A  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  a  different 
person  or  thing  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (401) : 

Omnia  hostium  erant,  all  things  belonged  to  the  enemy. 

XIX.  The  Genitive  is  used  (406)— 

I.  With  misereor  and  miseresco  : 
Miserere  laborum,  pity  the  labors. 

II.  With  recorder,  merainl,  reminiscor,  and  obliviscor : 
Meminit  praeteritorum,  he  remembers  the  past. 

III.  With  refert  and  interest : 
Interest  omnium,  it  is  the  interest  of  all. 

XX.  The  ACCUSATIVE  of  the  PERSON  and  the  GENITIVE  of  the 
THING  are  used  with  a  few  transitive  verbs  (409) : 

I.  With  verbs  of  reminding,  admonishing : 

Te  amicitiae  commonefacit,  he  reminds  you  of  friendship. 

II.  With  verbs  of  accusing,  convicting,  acquitting  : 
Viros  sceleris  arguis,  you  accuse  men  of  crime. 

III.  With  miseret,  paenitet,  pudet,  taedet,  and  piget : 
Eorum  nos  miseret,  we  pity  them. 

ABLATIVE  PROPER. 

XXL  The  PLACE  FROM  WHICH  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  (412) : 
I.  Generally  with  a  preposition — a,  ab,  de,  or  ex : 

Ab  urbe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  out  from  the  city. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX.  327 

II.  In  KAMES  OF  TOWNS  without  a  preposition : 

Platonem  Ath&nls  arcesslvit,  Tie  summoned  Plato  from  Athens. 

XXII.  Separation.  Source,  and  Cause  are  denoted  by  the  Abla- 
tive with  or  without  a  preposition  (413)  : 

Caedem  &  vobls  dSpellO,  /  ward  off  slaughter  from  you.  Hoc  audlvi  de 
parente  rneO,  /  heard  this  from  my  father.  Ars  tttilitate  laudatur,  an  art  is 
praised  because  of  Us  usefulness. 

XXin.  Comparatives  without  QUAM  are  followed  by  the  Abla- 
tive (417): 

Nihil  est  amabilius  virtute,  nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue. 

INSTRUMENTAL  ABLATIVE. 

XXIV.  The  Ablative  is  used  (419)— 

I.  To  denote  ACCOMPANIMENT.    It  then  takes  the  preposition  cum : 
Vlvit  cum  Balbo,  he  lives  with  Balbus. 

II.  To  denote  CHARACTERISTIC  or  QUALITY.    It  is  then  modified  by  an 
Adjective  or  by  a  Genitive : 

Summa  virtute  adulescens,  a  youth  of  the  highest  virtue. 

III.  To  denote  MANNER.    It  then  takes  the  preposition  cum,  or  is  mod- 
ified by  an  Adjective  or  by  a  Genitive : 

Cum  virtute  vixit,  he  lived  virtuously. 

XXV.  INSTRUMENT  and  MEANS  are  denoted  by  the  Ablative  (420) : 
Cornibus  taurl  se  tutantur,  bulls  defend  themselves  with  their  horns. 

XXVI.  The  Ablative  is  used  (421)— 

I.  With  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  their  compounds : 
Plurimis  rebus  fruimur  et  utimur,  we  enjoy  and  use  very  many  things. 

II.  With  VERBS  and  ADJECTIVES  OP  PLENTY  : 

Villa  abundat  lacte,  caseo,  melle,  the  villa  abounds  in  milk,  cheese,  and  honey. 

III.  With  dignus,  indignus,  and  contentus : 
Dlgnl  sunt  amlcitia,  they  are  worthy  of  friendship. 

XXVII.  PRICE  is  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative  (422) : 
Vendidit  auro  patriam,  he  sold  his  country  for  gold. 

XXVIII.  The  MEASURE  OF  DIFFERENCE  is  denoted  by  the  Ab- 
lative (423) : 

Uno  die  longiorem  mensem  faciunt,  they  make  the  month  one  day  longer. 

XXIX.  A  noun,  adjective,  or  verb  may  take  an  Ablative  to  de- 
fine its  application  (424) : 

Nomine,  non  potestate,  fuit  rex,  he  was  king  in  name,  not  in  power. 


328  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

LOCATIVE  ABLATIVE. 
XXX.  The  PLACE  IN  WHICH  is  denoted  (425) — 

I.  Generally  by  the  Locative  Ablative  with  the  preposition  in : 
Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  was  in  Italy. 

II.  In  NAMES  OF  TOWNS  by  the  Locative,  if  such  a  form  exists,  other- 
wise by  the  Locative  Ablative  : 

Komae  fuit,  he  was  at  Rome. 

XXXTT  The  TIME  of  an  action  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative 
(429): 

Octogesimo  ann6  est  mortuus,  lie  died  in  his  eightieth  year. 

XXXTE.  A  noun  and  a  participle  may  be  put  in  the  Ablative  to 
add  to  the  predicate  an  attendant  circumstance  (431) : 

Servio  regnante  viguerunt,  they  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Serviiw. 

CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 

XXXTTT.  The  Accusative  and  Ablative  may  be  used  with  prepo- 
sitions (432) : 

Ad  amlcum,  to  a  friend.    In  Italia,  in  Italy. 

AGBEEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES,  PRONOUNS,  AND  VERBS. 

XXXTV.  An  adjective  agrees  with  its  noun  in  GENDER,  NUM- 
BER, and  CASE  (438) : 

Fortuna  caeca  est,  fortune  is  blind. 

XXXV.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  GENDER,  NUM- 
BER, and  PERSON  (445) : 

Animal,  quod  sanguinem  habet,  an  animal  which  has  blood. 

XXXVI.  A  finite  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  NUMBER  and 
PERSON  (460) : 

Ego  reges  ejeci,  I  have  banished  Icings. 

USE  OP  THE  INDICATIVE. 

XXXVII.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  treating  of  facts  (474) : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world. 

MOODS  AND  TENSES  IN  PRINCIPAL  CLAUSES. 

XXXVIII.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action  NOT 

AS  REAL,  but  AS  DESIRED  (483) : 
Valeant  elves,  may  the  citizens  be  well. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX.  329 

XXXIX.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action  NOT  AS 

RBAL,  but  AS  POSSIBLE  (485) : 

Hie  quaerat  quispiam,  here  some  one  may  inquire. 

XL.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  COMMANDS,  EXHORTATIONS,  and 

ENTREATIES  (487)  I 

Justitiam  cole,  practice  justice. 

MOODS  AND  TENSES  IN  SUBORDINATE  CLAUSES. 
XLI.  Principal  tenses  depend  upon  principal  tenses  ;  historical 
upon  historical  (491) : 

Enltitur  ut  vincat,  Tie  strives  to  conquer. 

XLIL  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  PURPOSE  (497) — 

I.  With  the  relative  qui,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubl,  unde,  etc. : 
Missl  sunt  qui  (=utn)  consulerent  Apollinem,  they  were  sent  to  consult 

Apollo. 

II.  With  ut,  ne,  quo,  quominus : 

Enltitur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that  "he  may  conquer. 
XLin.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  RESULT  (500)— 
I.  With  the  relative  qui,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubl,  unde,  cur, 
etc. : 

Non  is  sum  qui  (=  ut  ego)  his  utar,  /  am  not  such  a  one  as  to  use  these 


II.  With  ut,  ut  non,  quln : 

Ita  vlxit  ut  Atheni£nsibus  esset  carissimus,  he  so  lived  that  he  was  very 
dear  to  the  Athenians. 

XLIV.  Conditional  sentences  with  si,  nisi,  nl,  sin,  take  (507) — 

I.  The  INDICATIVE  in  both  clauses  to  assume  the  supposed  case : 
Si  splritum  ducit,  vlvit,  if  he  breathes,  he  is  alive. 

II.  The  PRESENT  or  PERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVE  in  both  clauses  to  represent 
the  supposed  case  as  possible  : 

Dies  deficiat,  si  velim  causam  defendere,  the  day  would  fail  me,  if  I  should 


III.  The  IMPERFECT  or  PLUPERFECT  SUBJUNCTIVE  in  both  clauses  to  rep- 
resent the  supposed  case  as  contrary  to  fact : 

Pluribus  verbis  ad  te  scrlberem,  si  res  vorba  deslderaret,  Isliould  write  to 
you  more  fully  (with  more  words),  if  the  case  required  words. 

XLV.  Conditional  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive  (513) — 


330  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

I.  With  dum,  modo,  dummodo,  '  if  only,*  *  provided  that ' ;  dum  ne, 
modo  ne,  dummodo  ne,  *  if  only  not,'  *  provided  that  not ' : 

Manent  ingenia,  modo  permaneat  industria,  mental  powers  remain,  if  only 
industry  remains. 

II.  With  ac  si,  -at  si,  quam  si,  quasi,  tanquam,  tanquam  si,  velut, 
velut  si,  *  as  if,7  *  than  if,'  involving  an  ellipsis  of  the  real  conclusion : 

Perinde  habebo,  ac  si  scrlpsisses,  /  shall  regard  it  just  as  if  (i.  e.,  as  I 
should  if)  you  had  written. 

XL VI.  Concessive  clauses  take  (515) — 

I.  Generally  the  INDICATIVE  in  the  best  prose,  when  introduced  by 
quamquam  : 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  though  they  understand. 

II.  The  INDICATIVE  or  SUBJUNCTIVE  when  introduced  by  etsi,  etiamsi, 
tametsi,  or  si,  like  conditional  clauses  with  si  : 

Etsi  nihil  sci6  quod  gaudeam,  though  I  know  no  reason  why  I  should  rejoice. 

III.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  when  introduced  by  licet,  quamvis,  ut,  ne,  cum,  or 
the  relative  quls 

Licet  irrldeat,  though  he  may  deride. 

XLVII.  Causal  clauses  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quando,  gen- 
erally take  (516)— 

I.  The  INDICATIVE  to  assign  a  reason  positively  on  one's  own  authority : 
Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  since  a  thanksgiving  has  been  decreed. 

II.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  to  assign  a  reason  doubtfully,  or  on  anotlier's  au- 
thority : 

Socrates  accusatus  est,  quod  corrumperet  juventutem,  Socrates  was  accused, 
because  he  corrupted  the  youth. 

XLVm.  Causal  clauses  with  cum  and  qul  generally  take  the 
Subjunctive  in  writers  of  the  best  period  (517)  : 

Cum  vita  metus  plena  sit,  since  Ufe  is  full  of  fear. 

XLIX.  In  temporal  clauses  with  postquam,  postedquam,  uM,  ut, 
simul  atque,  etc.,  *  after,'  'when,'  'as  soon  as,'  the  Indicative  is 
used  (518) : 

Postquam  vidit,  etc. ,  castra  posuit,  he  pitched  his  camp,  after  he  saw,  etc. 

L.  I.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  in  the  sense 
of  WHILE,  AS  LONG  AS,  take  the  INDICATIVE  (519)  : 

Haec  fSci,  dum  licuit,  I  did  this  while  it  was  allowed. 

n.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  in  the  sense 
of  UNTIL,  take — 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX.  331 

1.  The  INDICATIVE,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an  ACTUAL  FACT: 
Dellbera  hoc,  dum  ego  redeO,  consider  this  until  I  return. 

2.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  something  DESIRED, 

PROPOSED,  Or  CONCEIVED : 

Differant,  dum  defervescat  Ira,  let  them  defer  it  till  their  anger  cools. 
LI.  In  temporal  clauses  with  antequam  and  priusquam  (520) — 
I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  is  put — 

1.  In  the  INDICATIVE,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an  ACTUAL  FACT  : 
Priusquam  lucet,  adsunt,  they  are  present  before  it  is  light. 

2.  In  the  SUBJUNCTIVE,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  SOMETHING  DE- 
SIRED, PROPOSED,  Or  CONCEIVED : 

Antequam  de  re  publics,  dlcam,  before  I  (can)  speak  of  the  republic. 
II.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  are  put  in  the  SUBJUNCTIVE  : 
Antequam  urbem  caperent,  before  they  took  the  city. 
LII.  In  temporal  clauses  with  cum  (521) — 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect  is  put  in  the 
INDICATIVE  : 

Cum  quiescunt,  probant,  while  they  are  silent,  they  approve. 

II.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  are  put — 

1.  In  the  INDICATIVE,  when  the  temporal  clause  ASSERTS  AN  HISTORICAL 
FACT: 

Paruit  cum  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary. 

2.  In  the  SUBJUNCTIVE,  when  the  temporal  clause  simply  DEFINES  THE 
TIME  of  the  principal  action : 

Cum  epistulam  complicarem,  while  I  was  folding  the  letter. 
LIIL  The  principal  clauses  of  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE  on  becom- 
ing INDIRECT  take  the  INFINITIVE  or  SUBJUNCTIVE  as  follows  (523) : 

I.  When  DECLARATIVE,  they  take  the  Infinitive  with  a  Subject  Accusative : 
Dlcebat  animos  esse  divinos,  he  was  wont  to  say  that  souls  are  divine. 

II.  When  INTERROGATIVE,  they  take — 

1.  Generally  the  Subjunctive: 

Ad  postulata  Caesaris  respondit,  quid  sibl  vellet,  cur  venlret,  to  the  de- 
mands of  Caesar  he  replied,  what  did  he  wish,  why  did  he  come  ? 

2.  Sometimes  the  Infinitive  with  a  Subject  Accusative,  as  in  rhetorical 
questions : 

Docebant  rem  esse  testimom'O,  etc. ;  quid  esse  levius,  they  showed  that  the 
fact  was  a  proof,  etc. ;  what  was  more  inconsiderate? 


332  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

III.  When  IMPERATIVE,  they  take  the  Subjunctive: 
Scrtbit  Labi£n6  cum  legiOne  veniat,  Tie  writes  to  Labienus  to  come  (that  he 
should  come)  with  a  legion. 

LIV.  The  subordinate  clauses  of  the  DIRECT  DISCOURSE,  on  be- 
coming INDIRECT,  take  the  Subjunctive  (524) : 

Respondit  se  id  quod  in  Nervils  fecisset  facturum,  Tie  replied  that  he  would 
do  what  he  had  done  in  the  case  of  the  Nervii. 

LV.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  (529)— 

I.  In  indirect  questions : 

Quaeritur,  cur  doctissim!  homines  dissentiant,  it  is  a  question,  why  the 
most  learned  men  disagree. 

II.  Often  in  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or  upon  another  Sub- 
junctive : 

Nihil  indlgnius  est  quam  eum  qul  culpa  careat  supplicio  rfon  carere,  noth- 
ing it  more  shameful  than  that  he  ioho  is  free  from  fault  should  not  be  ex- 
empt from  punishment. 

INFINITIVE. 

LVL  Many  verbs  admit  an  Infinitive  to  complete  or  qualify  their 
meaning  (533) : 

Haec  vltare  cupimus,  we  desire  to  avoid  these  things. 

LVII.  Many  transitive  verbs  admit  both  an  Accusative  and  an 
Infinitive  (534): 

Te  sapere  docet,  he  teaches  you  to  be  wise. 

LVlIl.  The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  an  Accusative  as  its  sub- 
ject (536): 

Platonem  Tarentum  vSnisse  reperio,  I  find  that  Plato  came  to  Tarentum. 

SUPINE. 

LIX.  The  Supine  in  um  is  used  with  verbs  of  motion  to  express 
PURPOSE  (546) : 

Lggatl  venerunt  res  repetitum,  deputies  came  to  demand  restitution. 

LX.  The  Supine  in  u  is  generally  used  as  an  Ablative  of  Speci- 
fication (54T) : 

Quid  eat  tarn  jucundum  audltu,  what  is  so  agreeable  to  hear  (in  hearing)  ? 

ADVERBS. 

LXI.  Adverbs  qualify  VERBS,  ADJECTIVES,  and  other  ADVERBS 
(551) : 

SapientSs  ffeliciter  vivunt,  the  wise  live  happily. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS.  333 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS    AND 
CLAUSES. 

559.  The  Latin  admits  of  great  variety  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  sentence,  thus  affording  peculiar  facilities 
both  for  securing  proper  emphasis,  and  for  imparting  to  its  periods 
that  harmonious  flow  which  characterizes  the  Latin  classics.     But 
with  all  this  freedom  and  variety,  there  are  certain  general  laws  of 
arrangement  which  it  will  be  useful  to  notice. 

I.  ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS. 
General  Rules. 

560.  The  Subject  followed  by  its  modifiers  occupies  the  first 
place  in  the  sentence,  and  the  Predicate  preceded^by  its  modifiers 
the  last  place : 

Sol  oriens  diem  conficit,  the  sun  rising  makes  the  day.  Cic.  Animus  aeger 
semper  errat,  a  diseased,  mind  always  errs.  Cic.  Miltiades  Athenas  llberavit, 
Miltiades  liberated  Athens.  Nep. 

56 1 .  EMPHASIS  and  EUPHONY  affect  the  arrangement  of  words. 

I.  Any  word,  except  the  subject,  may  be  made  emphatic  by  being  placed 
at  the  BEGINNING  of  the  sentence : 

Silent  legSs  inter  arma,  laws  ARE  SILENT  in  war.  Cic.  Numitorl  Eemus 
deditur,  Remus  is  delivered  TO  NUMITOR.  Liv. 

II.  Any  word,  except  the  predicate,  may  be  made  emphatic  by  being 
placed  at  the  END  of  the  sentence : 

Nobis  non  satisfacit  ipse  Demosthenes,  even  DEMOSTHENES  does  not  satisfy 
us.  Cic.  Consulatum  petlvit  nunquam^  lie  NEVER  sought  the  consulship.  Cic. 

III.  Two  words  naturally  connected,  as  a  noun  and  its  adjective,  or  a 
noun  and  its  Genitive,  are  sometimes  made  emphatic  by  SEPARATION  : 

Objurgdtiones  nonnunquam  incidunt  necessariae,  sometimes  necessary  RE- 
PROOFS occur.  Cic.  Justitiae  fungatur  omens,  let  him  discharge  the  duties  of 
mstice.  Cic. 

NOTE.— A  word  may  be  made  emphatic  by  being  placed  between  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound tense : 

Magna  adhibita  cura  est,  great  care  has  been  taken.  Cic. 

562.  CmASMUs.1 — When  two  groups  of  words  are  contrasted, 
the  order  of  the  first  is  often  reversed  in  the  second : 

1  So  called  from  the  Greek  letter  X. 


334  ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS. 

Fragile  corpus  animus  sempiternus  movet,  the  imperishable  soul  moves  the 
perishable  body.  Cio. 

563.  KINDRED  WORDS. — Different  forms  of  the  same  word,  or 
different  words  of  the  same  derivation,  are  generally  placed  near 
each  other: 

Ad  senein  senex  de  senectute  scrips!,  /,  an  old  man,  wrote  to  an  old  man 
on  the  subject  of  old  age.  Cic.  Inter  se  aliis  alii  prosunt,  they  benefit  each 
ether.  Cic. 

564.  A  word  which  has  a  COMMON  RELATION  to  two  other  words 
connected  by  conjunctions,  is  placed— 

I.  Generally  before  or  after  both : 

Pacis  et  artes  et  gloria,  both  the  arts  and  the  glory  of  peace.  Liv.  Belli 
pacisque  artes,  the  arts  of  war  and  of  peace.  Liv. 

NOTE.— A  Genitive  or  an  adjective  following  two  nouns  may  qualify  both,  but  it 
more  frequently  qualifies  only  the  latter : 

Haec  percunctatio  ac  denuntiatio  belli,  this  inquiry  and  this  declaration  of  war.  Liv. 

II.  Sometimes  directly  after  the  first  before  the  conjunction : 
Honoris  certamen  et  gloriae,  a  struggle  for  honor  and  glory.   Cic.    AgrI 

onmes  et  maria,  all  lands  and  seas.  Cic. 

Special  Rules. 

565.  The  MODIFIERS  OF  A  NOUN  generally  follow  it.     They 
may  be  either  adjectives  or  nouns : 

Populus  Komanus  decrevit,  the  Roman  people  decreed.  Cic.  Herodotus, 
pater  historiae,  Herodotus,  the  father  of  history.  Cic.  Liber  de  officils,  the 
book  on  duties.  Cic. 

1.  Modifiers,  when  emphatic,  are  placed  before  their  nouns : 

Tuscus  ager  Romano  adjacet,  the  TUSCAN  territory  borders  on  the  Roman.  Liv. 

2.  When  a  noun  is  modified  both  by  an  Adjective  and  by  a  Genitive,  the  usual  order 
is,  Adjective— Genitive — noun: 

Magna  clvium  penuria,  a  great  scarcity  of  citizens.  Cic. 

3.  An  adjective  is  often  separated  from  its  noun  by  a  monosyllabic  preposition : 
Magno  cum  periculo  esse,  to  be  attended  with  great  peril.  Cic. 

4.  In  the  poets  an  adjective  is  often  separated  from  its  noun  by  the  modifier  of  another 
noun: 

Insperata  tuae  veniet  pluma  superbiae,  the  unexpected  down  shall  come  upon  your 
pride.  Hor. 

566.  The  MODIFIERS  OF  AN  ADJECTIVE  generally  precede  it, 
but,  if  not  adverbs,  they  may  follow  it : 

Facile  doctissimus,  unquestionably  the  most  learned.  Cic.  Omni  aetatl 
communis,  common  to  every  age.  Cic.  Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise. 
Cic. 

567.  The  MODIFIERS  OF  A  VERB  generally  precede  it : 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS.  335 

•    Gloria  virtutem  sequitur,  glory  follows  virtue.   Cic.    Mundus  de6  paret, 
the  world  is  subject  to  God.   Cic.    Vehementer  dixit,  lie  spoke  vehemently.  Cic. 

1.  When  the  verb  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  the  modifiers,  of  course, 
follow;  see  the  first  example  under  561, 1. 

2.  An  emphatic  modifier  may  of  course  stand  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence  (561): 

Facillime  cognoscuntur  adulescentes,  most  easily  are  the  young  men  recognized.  Cic. 

8.  Of  two  or  more  modifiers  belonging  to  the  same  verb,  that  which  in  thought  is 
most  intimately  connected  with  the  verb  stands  next  to  it,  while  the  others  are  arranged 
as  emphasis  and  euphony  may  require : 

Mors  propter  brevitatem  vitae  nunquam  longe  abest,  death  is  never  far  distant,  in 
consequence  of  the  shortness  of  Itfe.  Cic. 

568.  The  MODIFIERS  OF  AN  ADVERB  generally  precede  it,  but 
a  Dative  often  follows  it : 

Valde  vehementer  dixit,  he  spoke  very  vehemently.  Cic.  Congruenter 
naturae  vivit,  he  lives  agreeably  to  nature.  Cic. 

569.  SPECIAL  WORDS. — Some  words  have  a  favorite  place  in 
the  sentence,  which  they  seldom  leave.     Thus — 

I.  The  Demonstrative  generally  precedes  its  noun : 
Custos  hujus  urbis,  the  guardian  of  this  city.   Cic. 

1.  Ille  in  the  sense  of  well-known  (450,  4)  generally  follows  its  noun,  if  not  accom- 
panied by  an  adjectivfe: 

Medea  ilia,  that  well-known  Medea.  Cic. 

2.  Pronouns  are  often  brought  together,  especially  quisque  with  suus  or  sul : 
Justitia  suum  cuique  tribwt,  justice  gives  to  every  man  his  due  (his  own).  Cic.    Qu! 

sese  student  praestare,  etc.,  who  are  eager  to  excel,  etc.  Sail. 

II.  Prepositions  generally  stand  directly  before  their  cases,  but  tenus 
and  versus  follow  their  cases : 

In  Asiam  profugit,  he  fled  into  Asia.   Cic.    Collo  tenus,  up  to  the  neck.  Ov. 

1.  The  preposition  frequently  follows  the  relative,  sometimes  other  pronouns,  and 
sometimes  even  nouns,  especially  in  poetry : 

Re's  qua  de  agitur,  the,  subject  of  which  we  are  treating.  Cic.  Italiam  contra,  over 
against  Italy.  Verg.  Corpus  in  Aeacidae,  into  the  body  of  Aeacides.  Verg. 

2.  For  cum  appended  to  an  Ablative,  see  184,  6;  187,  2. 

3.  Genitives,  adverbs,  and  a  few  other  words  sometimes  stand  between  the  preposi- 
tion and  its  case.    In  adjurations  per  is  usually  separated  from  its  case  by  the  Accusa- 
tive of  the  object  adjured,  or  by  some  other  word ;  and  sometimes  the  verb  bro  is  omitted : 

Post  Alexandri  magnl  mortem,  after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Cic.  Ad 
bene  vivendum,  for  living  well.  Cic.  Per  ego  has  lacrimas  te"  6rO,  I  implore  you  by 
these  tears.  Verg.  Per  ego  vos  deos  (=  per  deos  ego  vos  oro),  I  pray  you  in  the  name 
of  the  gods.  Curt. 

III.  Conjunction^  and  Relatives,  when  they  introduce  clauses,  generally 
stand  at  the  beginning  of  such  clauses ;  but  autemy  enim,  quidem,  quoque, 
vero,  and  generally  igitur,  follow  some  other  word : 

Si  peccavl,  ignosce,  if  I  have  erred,  pardon  me.   Cic.    Il  qui  superiorea 


036  ARRANGEMENT  OF  CLAUSES. 

sunt,  those  who  are  superior.  Cic.    Ipse  autem  omnia  videbat,  but  he  himself 
saw  all  things.   Cic. 

1.  A  conjunction  may  follow  a  relative  or  an  emphatic  word,  and  a  relative  may  follow 
an  emphatic  word : 

Id  ut  audivit,  as  he  heard  this.  Nep.  Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  the*e  things  are  so. 
Cic.  Trojae  qui  primus  ab  Oris  venit,  who  came  first  from  the  shores  of  Troy.  Verg. 

NOTE.— Certain  conjunctions,  as  et,  nee,  sed,  and  even  aut  and  vel,  are  more  frequently 
removed  from  the  beginning  of  the  clause  in  poetry  than  in  prose  : 

Compressus  et  omnis  impetus,  and  all  violence  was  checked.  Verg. 

2.  Ne— quidem  takes  the  emphatic  word  or  words  between  the  two  parts : 
Ne  in  oppidis  quidem,  not  even  in  the  towns.  Cic. 

3.  Quidem  often  follows  pronouns,  superlatives,  and  ordinals : 

Ex  me  quidem  nihil  audiet,  from  me  indeed  he  will  hear  nothing.  Cic. 

4.  Que,  we,  ne,  introducing  a  clause  or  phrase,  are  generally  appended  to  the  first 
word;  but  if  that  word  is  a  preposition,  they  are  often  appended  to  the  next  word : 

In  foroque,  and  in  the  forum.  Cic.    Inter  uosque,  and  among  us.  Cic. 

IV.  Non,  when  it  qualifies  some  single  word,  stands  directly  before  that 
word ;  but  when  it  is  particularly  emphatic,  or  qualifies  the  entire  clause, 
it  sometimes  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  clause,  and  sometimes  before 
the  finite  verb  or  before  the  auxiliary  of  a  compound  tense : 

Hac  villa  carere  non  possunt,  they  are  not  able  to  do  without  this  villa.  Cic. 
Non  fuit  Juppiter  metuendus,  Jupiter  was  not  to  be  feared.  Cic.  Fas  non 
putant,  they  do  not  think  it  right.  Cic.  Pecunia  soluta  non  est,  the  money 
has  not  been  paid.  Cic. 

1.  In  general,  in  negative  clauses  the  negative  word,  whether  particle,  verb,  or  noun, 
is  made  prominent: 

Negat  quemquam  pdsse,  he  denies  that  any  one  is  able.  Cic.  Nihil  est  melius, 
nothing  is  better.  Cic. 

Y.  Inquam,  sometimes  aid,  introducing  a  quotation,  follows  one  or  more 
of  the  words  quoted.  The  subject,  if  expressed,  generally  follows  its  verb : 

Nihil,  inquit  Brutus,  quod  dlcam,  nothing  which  I  shall  state,  said  Brutus. 
Cic. 

YI.  The  Yocative  rarely  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence.    It 
usually  follows  an  emphatic  word : 
Perge,  Laell,  proceed,  Laelius.  Cic. 

II.  ARRANGEMENT  OF  CLAUSES. 

570.  Clauses  connected  by  coordinate  conjunctions  (554)  fol- 
low each  other  in  the  natural  order  of  the  thought,  as  in  English : 

Sol  ruit  et  montes  umbrantur,  the  sun,  hastens  to  Us  setting,  and  the  moun- 
tains are  shaded.  Yerg.  Gjges  a  nullo  videbatur,  ipse  autem  omnia  videbat, 
Gyges  was  seen  by  no  one,  but  he  himself  saw  all  things.  Cic. 

571.  A  clause  used  as  the  SUBJECT  of  a  complex  sentence  (348) 
generally  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  a  clause  used 
as  the  PREDICATE  at  the  end : 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  CLAUSES.  337 

Quid  dies  ferat  incertura  est,  what  a  day  may  ~bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic. 
Exitus  fait  orationis,  sib!  nullam  cum  his  amicitiam  esse,  the  close  of  the  ora- 
tion was,  that  he  had  no  friendship  with  these  men.  Caes. 

1.  This  arrangement  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  simple  sentence;  see  560. 

2.  Emphasis  and  euphony  often  have  the  same  effect  upon  the  arrangement  of  clauses 
as  upon  the  arrangement  of  words;  see  561. 

572.  Clauses  used  as  the  SUBORDINATE  ELEMENTS  of  complex 
sentences  admit  three  different  arrangements : 

I.  They  are  generally  inserted  within  the  principal  clause,  like  the  sub- 
ordinate elements  of  a  simple  sentence : 

Hostes,  ubi  prlmum  nostros  equites  conspexerunt,  celeriter  nostros  per- 
turbaverunt,  the  enemy,  as  soon  as  they  saw  our  cavalry,  quickly  put  our  men 
to  rout.  Caes.  Sententia,  quae  tutissima  videbatur,  vlcit,  the  opinion  which 
seemed  the  safest  prevailed.  Liv. 

II.  They  are  often  placed  before  the  principal  clause : 

Cuin  quiescunt,  probant,  while  they  are  quiet,  they  approve.  Cic.  Qualis 
sit  animus,  animus  nescit,  the  soul  knows  not  ivhat  the  soul  is.  Cic. 

NOTE.— This  arrangement  is  generally  used  when  the  subordinate  clause  either  refers 
back  to  the  preceding  sentence,  or  is  preparatory  to  the  thought  of  the  principal  clause. 
Hence  temporal,  conditional,  and  concessive  clauses  often  precede  the  principal  clause. 
Hence  also,  in  sentences  composed  of  correlative  clauses  with  is—qul,  talis—qualis, 
tantus — quantus,  turn — cum,  ita — ut,  etc.,  the  relative  member,  i.  e.,  the  clause  with 
qul,  qudUs,  quantus,  cum,  ut,  etc.,  generally  precedes. 

III.  They  sometimes  follow  the  principal  clause : 

Enltitur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that  he  may  conquer.  Cic.  Sol  efficit  ut  omnia 
fioreant,  the  sun  causes  all  things  to  bloom.  Cic. 

NOTE.— This  arrangement  is  generally  used  when  the  subordinate  clause  is  either 
intimately  connected  in  thought  with  the  following  sentence,  or  explanatory  of  the  prin- 
cipal clause.  Hence,  clauses  of  Purpose  and  Result  generally  follow  the  principal  clause, 
as  in  the  examples. 

573.  LATIN  PERIODS. — A  complex  sentence  in  which  two  or 
more  subordinate  clauses  are  inserted  within  the  principal  clause  is 
called  a  PERIOD  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term. 

NOTE  1.— The  examples  given  under  573, 1.,  are  short  and  simple  examples  of  Latin 
Periods. 

NOTE  2.— Many  Latin  periods  consist  of  several  carefully  constructed  clauses  so  united 
as  to  form  one  complete  harmonious  whole.  For  examples,  see  Cicero's  Third  Oration 
against  Catiline,  XII., 'Bed  quoniam  .  .  .  providure';  also  Livy,  I.,  6,  'Numitor,  inter 
prlmum  .  .  .  ostendit.' 

NOTE  3.— In  a  freer  sense  the  term  Period  is  sometimes  applied  to  all  complex  sen- 
tences which  end  with  principal  clauses.  In  this  sense  the  examples  given  under  573, 
II.,  are  Periods.  Many  carefully  elaborated  Latin  sentences  are  constructed  in  this  way ; 
see  Cicero's  Oration  for  the  Poet  Archias,  L, l  Quod  si  haec  .  .  .  debemus';  also  the  First 
Oration  against  Catiline,  XIII., 'Utsaepe  homines  .  .  .  ingravescet' 


338  RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 

PART  FOURTH. 
P  E  O  S  O  D  T. 

574.  Prosody  treats  of  Quantity  and  Versification. 


CHAPTEE     I. 

QUANTITY. 

575.  The  time  occupied  in  pronouncing  a  syllable  in  poetry 
is  called  its  quantity.1    Syllables  are  accordingly  characterized  as 
long,  short,  or  common.* 

I.  GENEKAL  RULES  OP  QUANTITY. 

576.  A  syllable  is  LONG  IN  QUANTITY — 

I.  If  it  contains  a  DIPHTHONG,  or  is  the  result  of  CON- 
TRACTION : 

haec,  foedus,  aura ;  c6g6  (for  coigO),  occldo  (for  occaedo),  nil  (for  nihil). 

I.  Prae  in  composition  is  usually  short  before  a  vowel :  vraeacutus. 

II.  If  its  vowel  is  followed  by  J,  X,  or  Z,  or  any  Two 
CONSONANTS  except  a  mute  and  a  liquid  : 8 

major,  dux,  servus,  sunt,  regunt,  rSgnum,  agmen. 

1.  But  one  or  both  of  the  consonants  must  belong  to  the  same  word  as  the 
vowel :  ab 4  sede,  per*  saxa. 

NOTE  1. — II  has  no  tendency  in  combination  with  any  consonant  to  lengthen  a  pre- 
ceding syllable.  Hence  in  such  words  as  Achaeus^  Atfienae,  the  first  syllable  is  short. 

NOTE  2. — In  the  early  poets  a  short  final  syllable  ending  in  8  remained  short  before 
a  word  beginning  with  a  consonant ;  sometimes  also  short  final  syllables  ending  in  other 
consonants  :  imdginis  formam,  enim  vero,  erat  dicto.6 

1  In  many  cases  the  quantity  of  syllables  may  be  best  learned  from  the  Dictionary, 
bat  in  others  the  student  may  be  greatly  aided  by  certain  general  statements  or  rules. 

2  That  is,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short 

3  Here  the  syllable  is  long  by  nature  if  the  vowel  is  long,  but  long  only  "by  position 
if  the  vowel  is  short.    For  the  quantity  of  vowels  before  two  consonants  or  a  double  con- 
sonant, see  651. 

4  Here  ab  becomes  long  before  «  in  sed e,  and  per  before  8  in  saxa. 
6  Here  the  syllables  &,  im,  and  at  remain  short. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY.  339 

NOTE  3. —In  the  early  poets  many  syllables  long  by  position  in  the  Augustan  poets 
are  sometimes  short,  as  the  first  syllable  of  ecce,  ergo,  ille,  inter,  omnis,  unde,  v&or. 

NOTE  4.— A  final  syllable  ending  in  a  vowel  is  occasionally,  though  rarely,  lengthened 
by  consonants  at  the  beginning  of  the  following  word. 

NOTE  5.— In  Greek  words  a  syllable  with  a  vowel  before  a  mute  and  a  nasal  is  some- 
times short :  cycnus,  Teomessa, 

2.  In  the  compounds  ofjugwny  the  syllable  before,/  is  short:  Ujugus, 

577.  A  syllable  is  SHORT  IN  QUANTITY  if  its  vowel  is 
followed  in  the  same  word  by  another  VOWEL,  by  a  DIPH- 
THONG, or  by  the  aspirate  H  : 

dies,  doceo,  viae,  nihil. 

I.  The  following  vowels,  with  the  syllables  which  contain  them,  are 
long  by  EXCEPTION  : 

1.  A — (1)  in  the  Genitive  ending  al  of  Dec.  I.:  aulal ;  (2)  in  proper 
names  in  aim :  Gains  (Gajus) ;  (3)  before  ta,  ie,  io,  iu,  in  the  verb  did. 

2.  E — (1)  in  the  ending  el  of  Dec.  V.  when  preceded  by  a  vowel :  diel ; 
and  sometimes  when  preceded  by  a  consonant :  fidel,  rel ;  often  in  the  Da- 
tive Singular  of  the  pronoun  is :  el ;  (2)  in  proper  names  in  eius :  Pom- 
peius  ;  (3)  in  e7ieuy  and  in  Rhea.1 

3.  I — (1)  in  the  verb  fid,  when  not  followed  by  er:  flam,  flebamy  but 
farl  ;2  (2)  in  dlus,  a,  urn  (for  dlvus,  a,  urn) ;  (3)  generally  in  the  Genitive 
ending  ins :  allus,  illlus  ;  (4)  sometimes  in  Diana. 

4.  O — sometimes  in  dhe. 

6.  In  Greek  words  vowels  are  often  long  before  a  vowel,  because  long 
in  the  original :  tier,  Aeneas,  Brlseis,  Menelaus,  Troes. 

NOTE.— This  often  occurs  hi  proper  names  in  ea,  la,  eus,  liw,  don,  Ion,  die,  die, 
oius :  Medea,  Alexandria,  Peneus,  Darius,  Orion. 

578.  A  syllable  is  COMMON  IN  QUANTITY  if  its  vowel, 
naturally  short,  is  followed  by  a  mute  and  a  liquid  : 

ager,  agri ;  pater,  patris ;  duplex,  triplex. 

NOTE  1.— A  syllable  ending  in  a  mute  in  the  first  part  of  a  compound  before  a  liquid 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  part  is  long :  ab-rwnpo,  6b-rogb. 

NOTE  2.— In  Plautus  and  Terence  a  syllable  with  a  short  vowel  before  a  mute  and  a 
liquid  is  short. 

II.  QUANTITY  OP  FINAL  SYLLABLES. 

579.  Monosyllables  are  long  : 

a,  da,  te,  se,  de,  si,  qui,  do,  pro,  tu,  dos,  pes,  sis,  bos,  sus,  par,  sol. 

1  The  name  of  the  daughter  of  Numitor,  and  of  a  priestess  in  Vergil.  In  Rhed,  anoth- 
er name  for  Cybett,  the  e  is  short. 

a  Sometimes  fieri  in  Plautus  and  Terence, 


340  RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 

I.  The  following  are  short  by  EXCEPTION  : 

1.  Enclitics:  que,  ve,  ne,  ce,  te,pse,pte. 

2.  Monosyllables  in  b,  d,  1,  m,  t :  ab,  ad,  fel,  sum,  et ;  except  sal,  sol. 

3.  An,  bis,  cis,  cor,  es,  fac,  fer,  in,  is,  nee,  os  (ossis),  per,  ter,  qua  (indef- 
inite), quis,  vir,  vas  (vadis),  and  sometimes  hie  and  hoc  in  the  Nominative 
and  Accusative. 

580.  In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable — 

I.  The  final  vowels  i,  o,  and  u  are  long;  a,  e,  and  y, 

short :  l 

marl,  audi,  servo,  omnino,  fructu,  cornu ;  via,  maria,  mare,  misy. 

II.  Final  syllables  in  c  are  long ;  in  d,  1,  m,  n,  r,  t,  short : 

alec,  illuc ;  illud,  consul,  amem,  carmen,  amor,  caput. 

NOTE  I.— Donee  and  lien  are  exceptions. 

Nora  2. — Final  syllables  in  n  and  r  are  long  in  many  Greek  words  which  end  long  in 
the  original:  as  Titan,  Anchlsen,  Hymen,  Delphin,  aer,  aether,  crater. 

III.  The  final  syllables  as,  es,  and  os  are  long ;  is,  us, 
ys,  short : 

amas,  mensas,  mones,  nubes,  servos ;  avis,  urbis,  bonus,  chlamys. 

NOTE  1. — The  learner  will  remember  that  short  final  syllables  like  is,  us,  etc.,  may  be 
lengthened  by  being  placed  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  consonant;  see  576,  II. 

NOTE  2.— Plautus  retains  the  original  quantity  of  many  final  syllables  usually  short  in 
the  Augustan  age.  Thus  the  endings  d,  e,  dl,  dr,  or,  Is,  us,  at,  et,  U,  often  stand  in  place 
of  the  later  endings  a,  e,  al,  ar,  or,  is,  us,  at,  et,  it  (21).  Some  of  these  early  forms 
are  retained  by  Terence,  and  some  of  them  occasionally  occur  in  the  Augustan  poets. 

NOTE  3. — Plautus  and  Terence,  in  consequence  of  the  colloquial  character  of  comedy, 
often  shorten  unaccented  final  syllables  after  an  accented  short  syllable :  ama,  dbi* 
dedi,  domi,  domo,  viro,  pedes. 

NOTE  4.— In  Plautus  and  Terence  the  doubling  of  a  letter  does  not  usually  affect  the 
quantity  of  the  syllable :  II  in  ille,  mm  in  immd,  pp  in  opportune. 

581.  Numerous  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  for  the 
quantity  of  final  syllables  occur  even  in  classical  Latin: 

I.  I  final,  usually  LONG,  is  sometimes  SHORT  or  COMMON — 

1.  SHORT  in  nisi,  quasi,  cui  (when  a  dissyllable),  and  in  the  Greek  ending 
si  of  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural. 

2.  COMMON  in  miht,  tibi,  sibi,  iM,  ubi,  and  in  the  Dative  and  Vocative 
Singular  of  some  Greek  words. 

II.  O  final,  usually  LONG,  is  SHORT — 

1.  In  duo,  ego,  octo,  eTio,  in  the  adverbs  cito,  ilico,  modo,  and  its  compounds, 
dummodo,  quomodo,  etc.,  in  cedo,  and  in  the  old  form  endo. 

1  Via  short  in  indu  and  nlnu.    Contracted  syllables  are  long,  according  to  576, 1. 


RULES   OF  QUANTITY.  341 

2.  Sometimes  (1)  in  nouns  of  Dec.  III.  and  (2)  in  verbs,  though  very 
rarely  in  the  best  poets. 

III.  A.  final,  usually  SHORT,  is  LONG — 

1.  In  the  Ablative :  mensd,  bond,  ilia. 

2.  In  the  Vocative  of  Greek  nouns  in  as :  Aened,  Palld.1 

3.  In  Verbs  and  Particles:  amd,  curd;  tired,  juxtd,  anted  ^  frustrd.    Ex- 
cept ita,  quiet,  eja,  Tieja,  andputa  used  adverbially. 

IV.  B  final,  usually  SHORT,  is  LONG — 

1.  In  Dec.  I.  and  V.,2  and  in  Greek  plurals  of  Dec.  III. :  epitome  ;  re,  die; 
tempe,  mele. 

2.  Generally  in  the  Dative  ending  I  of  Dec.  III. :  aerl  =  aerl. 

3.  In  the  Singular  Imperative  Active  of  Conj.  II. :  mone,  doce.    But  e  is 
sometimes  short  in  cavl,  mdl,  etc.3 

4.  In  fere,  ferme,  6he,  and  in  adverbs  from  adjectives  of  Dec.  II. :  docte, 
recte.    Except  bene,  male,  mferne,  interne,  superne. 

V.  As  final,  usually  LONG,  is  SHORT — 

1.  In  anas  and  in  a  few  Greek  nouns  in  as :  Areas,  lampas. 

2.  In  Greek  Accusatives  of  Dec.  III. :  Arcadas,  Tieroas. 

VI.  23s  final,  usually  LONG,  is  SHORT — 

1.  In  Nominatives  Singular  of  Dec.  III.  with  short  increment  (582)  in 
the  Genitive :  miles  (itis),  obses  (idis),  interpres  (etis).    Except  abies,  aries, 
paries,  Ceres,  and  compounds  ofpes,  as  bipes,  tripes,  etc. 

2.  In  penes  and  the  compounds  of  es,  as  ades,potes. 

3.  In  Greek  words— (1)  in  the  plural  of  those  which  increase  in  the  Geni- 
tive :  Arcades,  Troades ;  (2)  in  a  few  neuters  in  es :  Hippomenes ;  (3)  in  a 
few  Vocatives  Singular :  Demosthenes. 

VII.  Os  final,  usually  LONG,  is  SHORT — 

1.  In  compos,  impos,  exos. 

2.  In  Greek  words  with  the  ending  short  in  the  Greek :  Delos,  melos. 

VIII.  Is  final,  usually  SHORT,  is  LONG — 

1.  In  plural  cases :  mensls,  servls,  vobls.    Hence  forls,  gratis,  in  gratis. 

2.  In  Nominatives  of  Dec.  III.  increasing  long  in  the  Genitive :    Quins 
(itis),  Salamls  (mis). 

3.  In  the  Singular  Present  Indie.  Act.  of  Conj.  IV. :  audls. 

NOTE.— -Mewls,  quvvis,  utervls,  follow  the  quantity  of  vis. 

4.  In  the  Singular  Present  Subj.  Act. :  possls,  veils,  noils,  mails. 

1  Sometimes  in  the  Vocative  of  Greek  nouns  in  as  and  es. 

2  Hence,  in  the  compounds,  hodie^  prldie,  postrldie,  quare. 

3  In  the  comic  poets  many  dissyllabic  Imperatives  with  a  short  penult  shorten  the 
ultimate:  as  hale,  jube,  mane,  move,  tacc,  tene,  etc. 


342  RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 

5.  Sometimes  in  the  Singular  of  the  Future  Perfect  and  of  the  Perfect 
Subjunctive  :  amdveris,  docuerls. 

IX.  Us  final,  usually  SHORT,  is  LONG  — 

1.  In  Nominatives  of  Dec.  III.  increasing  long  in  the  Genitive:  virtus 
(utis),  tellus  (uris). 

NOT*.—  But  palus  (u  short)  occurs  in  Horace,  Ars  Poetica,  65. 

2.  In  Dec.  IV.,  in  the  Genitive  Singular,  and  in  the  Nominative,  Accusa- 
tive, and  Vocative  Plural  :  fructus. 

3.  In  Greek  words  ending  long  in  the  original  :  Panthus,  Sapphus,  tripus. 
NOTE.  —  But  we  have  Oedipus  and  polypus. 

III.  QUANTITY  IN  INCREMENTS. 

582.  A  word  is  said  to  increase  in  declension,  when  it  has  in 
any  case  more  syllables  than  in  the  Nominative  Singular,  and  to 
have  as  many  increments  of  declension  as  it  has  additional  syllables  : 
sermd,  sermdnis,  sermonibus.1 

583.  A  verb  is  said  to  increase  in  conjugation,  when  it  has  in 
any  part  more  syllables  than  in  the  second  person  singular  of  the 
Present  Indicative  Active,  and  to  have  as  many  increments  of  conju- 
gation as  it  has  additional  syllables  :  amds,  amdtis,  amdbatis.  2 

584.  If  there  is  but  one  increment,  it  is  uniformly  the  penult  ; 
if  there  are  more  than  one,  they  are  the  penult  with  the  requisite 
number  of  syllables  before  it.     The  increment  nearest  the  begin- 
ning of  the  word  is  called  the  first  increment,  and  those  following 
this  are  called  successively  the  second,  third,  and.  fourth  increments.3 

Increments  of  Declension. 

585.  In  the  Increments  of  Declension,  a  and  o  are  long  ; 
e,  i,  u,  and  y,  short  :  * 

aetas,  aetatis,  aetatibus  ;  sermo,  sennonis  ;  puer,  puerl,  puerorum  ;  fulgur, 
fulguris;  chlamys,  chlamydis;  bonus,  bonarum,  bonorum;  ille,  illarum,  il- 
lorum  ;  miser,  miserl  ;  supplex,  supplicis  ;  satur,  saturi. 

I.  A,  usually  LONG  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  SHORT  in  the  first 
increment  —  6 


i*)  having  one  syllable  more  than  sermd,  has  one  increment,  while  a&rmdni- 
bus  has  two  increments. 

2  AmdU*  has  one  increment,  amdbdtis  two. 

12  123 

3  In  seT-mon-i-bus,  the  first  increment  is  mon,  the  second  i  ;  and  in  mon-u-e-ra-mus, 
the  first  is  u,  the  second  e,  the  third  ra. 

*  Y  occurs  only  in  Greek  words,  and  is  long  in  the  increments  of  nouns  in  yn  and  of 
a  few  others. 

6  Observe  that  the  exceptions  belong  to  the  first  increment. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY.  343 

1.  Of  masculines  in  al  and  ar :  Hannibal,  Hannibalis  ;  Caesar,  Caesaris. 

2.  Of  nouns  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant:  daps,  dapis ;  Arabs,  Arabis ; 
Tiiems,  Tiiemis. 

3.  Of  Greek  nouns  in  a  and  as  :  poema,  poematis  ;  Pallas,  Palladia, 

4.  Of  (1)  baccar,  Tiepar,  jubar,  Idr,  nectar,  par,  and  its  compounds ;  (2) 
anas,  mas,  was  (vadis) ;  (3)  sal,  fax,  and  a  few  rare  Greek  words  in  ax. 

II.  O,  usually  LONG  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  SHORT  in  the  first 
increment —  * 

1.  Of  Neuters  in  Declension  III. :   aequor,  aequoris ;  tempus,  temporis. 
Except  os  (oris),  ador  (adoris),  and  comparatives. 

2.  Of  words  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant :  inops,  inopis.    Except  Cyclops 
and  Jiydrops. 

3.  Of  arbor,  bos,  lepus ;  compos,  impos,  memor,  immemor  ;  Allobrox,  Cap- 
padox,  praecox. 

4.  Of  most  Patrials  :  Macedo,  Macedonia. 

5.  Of  many  Greek  nouns— (1)  those  in  or:  rhetor,  Hector ;  (2)  many  in  6 
and  on  increasing  short  in  Greek :  oeddn,  oedonis  ;  (3)  in  Greek  compounds 
mpus  OTpus :  tripus  (odis),  Oedipus. 

III.  E,  usually  SHORT  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  LONG  in  the 
first  increment — 

1.  Of  Declension  V. :  diei,  dierum,  diebus,  rebus.    But  in  the  Genitive  and 
Dative  Singular  sometimes  short  after  a  consonant :  fidll,  spll. 

2.  Of  nouns  in  en,  mostly  Greek:  lien,  Uenis  ;  Siren,  Sirenis.    So  AniO, 
Anienis. 

3.  Of  Celtiber,  Iber,  ver,  heres,  locuples,  mercies,  quies,  inquies,  requies,  plebs, 
lex,  rex,  alec,  dlex,  vervex. 

4.  Of  a  few  Greek  words  in  es  and  Ir :  lebes,  lebetis  ;  crater,  crateris.    Ex- 
cept aer  and  aether. 

IV.  I,  usually  SHORT  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  LONG  in  the 
first  increment— 

1.  Of  most  words  in  Ix  :  radix,  radlcis  ;  fellx,fellcis.* 

2.  Of  d/is,  gUs,  lis,  vis,  Quirls,  Samnls. 

3.  Of  delpJiln,  and  a  few  rare  Greek  words. 
NoTB.-For  quantity  of  I  in  the  ending  ius,  see  577,  3. 

Y.  U,  usually  SHORT  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  LONG  in  the 
first  increment — 

1.  Of  nouns  in  us  with  the  Genitive  in  uris,  utis,  udis  :  jus,  juris;  salus, 
salutis  ;  palus,  paludis.* 

2.  Offur,frux,  lux,  plus,  Pollux. 

1  Bee  p.  342,  foot-note  5. 

2  But  short  in  append^  cattoo,  Cilix,  filix,  fornix,  nix,  pfa,  salix,  strix,  and  a 
few  others,  chiefly  proper  names. 

8  But  short  in  intercus,  lAgus,  pecus. 


344  RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 

Increments  of  Conjugation. 

586.  In  the  Increments  of  Conjugation  (583),  a,  e,  and 
o  are  long ;  i  and  u  short : 

amSmus,  amSmus,  amatote  ;  regimus,  surnus. 

NOTE  1.— In  ascertaining  the  increments  of  the  irregular  verbs, /ero,  void,  and  their 
compounds,  the  rail  form  of  the  second  person,  feris,  volis,  etc.,  must  be  used.  Thus 
in  ferebam  and  volebam,  the  increments  are  re  and  U. 

NOTE  2. — In  ascertaining  the  increments  of  reduplicated  forms  (255,  I.),  the  re- 
duplication is  not  counted.  Thus  dedimus  has  but  one  increment,  di. 

I.  A,  usually  LONG  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  SHORT  in  the 
first  increment  of  do :  dare,  dabam,  circwndabam. 

II.  E,  usually  LONG  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  SHORT  before  r — 

1.  In  the  tenses  in  ram,  rim,  ro :  amdveram,  amdverim,  amdverO  /  rexerat, 
rexerit. 

2.  In  the  first  increment  of  the  Present  and  Imperfect  of  Conjugation  III. : 
regere,  regeris,  regerem,  regerer. 

3.  In  the  Future  ending  beris,  bere  :  amdberis  or  -ere,  moneberis. 

4.  Barely  in  the  Perfect  ending  erunt :  steterunt  for  steterunt ;  see  236, 
note ;  also  Systole,  608,  VI. 

III.  I,  usually  SHORT  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  LONG,  except 
before  a  vowel — 

1.  In  the  first  increment  of  Conjugation  IV.,  except  imus  of  the  Perfect : 
and/ire,  audivi,  audUum ;  sentlre,  sentimus ;  sensiimts  (Perfect). 

2.  In  Conjugation  III.,  in  the  first  increment  of  Perfects  and  Supines  in 
Ivl  and  ttwn  (378),  and  of  the  parts  derived  from  them  (except  imm  of 
the  Perfect:  trlvimus) :  cuplm,  cuplverat,  cupitus  /  petivi,  petltus;  capessivi, 
capesstturus.     Gdvisus  from  gaudeo  follows  the  same  analogy. 

3.  In  the  endings  imw  and  ttis  of  the  Present  Subjunctive :  slmus,  sUis  ; 
vellmus,  velitis  (340,  3). 

4.  In  noUte,  nolUo,  nolMote,  and  in  the  different  persons  of  ibam,  ibo,  from 
eo  (395). 

5.  Sometimes  in  the  endings  nmus  and  ritis  of  the  Future  Perfect  and 
Perfect  Subjunctive :  amdverimiis,  amdverUis. 

IV.  U,  usually  SHORT  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  LONG  in  the 
Supine  and  the  parts  formed  from  it :  volutum,  voluturus,  amaturus. 

IV.  QUANTITY  OF  DEKIVATIVE  ENDINGS. 

587.  The  most  important  derivative  endings  may  be  classified 
according  to  quantity  as  follows : 

I.  Derivative  endings  with  a  LONG  PENULT  : 
1.  abrum,  acrum,  atrum : 

flabrunij  simulacrum,  aratrurn. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY.  345 

2.  ed5,  Ido,  udo;  ago,Jg6,  ugoj 

dulcedo,  cupldo,  solitude ;  vorago,  origo,  aerugo. 

3.  ais,  eis,  ois,  5tis,  ine,  one — in  patronymics : l 
Ptolemais,  Chryseis,  Mmois,  Icariotis,  Nerme,  Acrisione. 

4.  ela,  lie;  alls,  elis,  ulis : 
querela,  ovlle ;  mortalis,  fidelis,  curulis. 

5.  anus,  enus,  onus,  unus ;  ana,  ena,  ona,  una : 

urbanus,  egenus,  patronus,  tribunus;  membrana,  habgna,  annona,  la- 
cuna. 

6.  aris,  arus ;  orus,  osus ;  avus,  ivus : 

salutaris,  avarus ;  canorus,  animosus ;  octavus,  aestivus. 

7.  atus,  etus,  itus,  otus,  utus ;  atim,  itim,  utim ;  etum,  eta : 2 
alatus,  f acetus,  turritus,  aegrotus,  cornutus ;  singulatim,  viritim,  tribu- 

tim ;  quercetum,  moneta. 

8.  enl,  ini,  oni — in  distributives  : 
septenl,  qulnl,  octonl. 

II.  Derivative  endings  with  a  SHORT  PENULT — 

1.  ades,  iades,  ides — in  patronymics : 3 
Aeneades,  Laertiades,  Tantalides. 

2.  iacus,  icus,  idus : 4 
Corinthiacus,  modicus,  cupidus. 

3.  olus,  ola,  olum ;  ulus,  ula,  ulum ;  culus,  cula,  culum — in  diminu- 
tives : 

filiolus,  flliola,  atriolum ;  hortulus,  virgula,  oppidulum ;  flosculus,  par- 
ticula,  munusculum. 

4.  etas,  itas— in  nouns  ;  iter,  itus — in  adverbs : 
pietas,  veritas ;  fortiter,  dlvmitus. 

6.  atilis,  ilis,  bilis — in  verbals;  inus — in  adjectives  denoting  material 
or  time:* 

versatilis,  docilis,  amabilis ;  adamantinus,  cedrinus,  crastinus,  diutinus. 

NOTE  1.— His  in  adjectives  from  nouns  usually  has  the  penult  long :  civllis,  hostlUe, 
puerllis,  virllis. 

NOTE  2.— Inus  denoting  characteristic  (330)  usually  has  the  penult  long :  canmus, 
equinus,  marlnus. 

1  Except  Danais,  Phocais,  TMbaia,  ffir&s. 

2  Except  (1)  anhetttus,  fortuitus,  gratuitus,  hdlitus,  Twspitua,  spiritus;  (2)  adfa- 
tim,  statim,  and  adverbs  in  itu*,  as  dwinitus;  and  (8)  participles  provided  for  by  586. 

3  Except  (1)  those  in  Idea  from  nouns  in  eus  and  ea :  as,  Pelidta  (Peleus),  Neo- 
tildes  (Neocles) ;  and  (2)  Amphiaroidea,  Amyclldes,  Belldes,  Coronides,  Lyewrgldes. 

4  Except  amicus,  antlcus,  aprlcus,  mendicus,  postlciw,  pudlcw. 
6  Except  matuttnuSi  repentwua,  vetpertlnus. 

16 


346  RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 

III.  Derivative  endings  with  a  LONG  ANTEPENULT  : 

1 .  aceus.  uceus,  aneus,  arius,  arium,  orius  : 

rosaceus,  pannuceus,  subitaneus,  cibarius,  columbarium,  censorius. 

2.  abundus,  acundus  ;  abilis,  atilis,  aticus : 
mlrabundus,  Iracundus ;  amabilis,  versatilis,  aquaticus. 

3.  aginta,  iginti,  esimus — in  numerals : 
nonaginta,  vigintl,  centesimus. 

4.  imonia,  imonium ;  torius,  sorius ;  toria,  torium : 
querimonia,  alimonium ;  amatorius,  censorius ;  victoria,  auditorium. 

IY.  Derivative  endings  with  a  SHORT  ANTEPENULT  : 

1.  ibilis,  itudo,  olentus,  ulentus : 
credibilis,  solitudo,  vlnolentus,  opulentus. 

2.  urio — in  desideratives  :    . 
esurio,  empturio,  parturio. 

V.  QUANTITY  OF  STEM-SYLLABLES. 

588.  All  simple  verbs  in  id  of  the  Third  Conjugation  (217) 
have  the  stem-syllable  *  short : 

capio,  cupio,  facio,  fodio,  fugio. 

589.  Most  verbs  which  form  the  Perfect  in  ul  have  the  stem- 
syllable  short: 

domo,  secoj  habeo,  moneo,  alo,  cold. 

NOTE.— Ponx\  debed,  floreo,  pdreo^  and  several  inceptive  verbs,  are  exceptions. 

590.  Dissyllabic  Perfects  and  Supines  have  the  first  syllable 
long,  unless  short  by  position : 

juvo,  juvi,  julum ;  foveo,  fovl,  fotum. 

1.  Eight  Perfects  and  ten  Supines  have  the  first  syllable  short : 
bibi,  dedi,  fid/i,  Uquif  scidi,  steti,  stiti,  lull  /  cttwm,  datum,  iturn^  litum^ 
quitum,  ratui^  rutum,  satum^  situm,  statum* 

591.  Trisyllabic  Reduplicated  Perfects  have  the  first  two  syl- 
lables short : 

cado,  cecidt;  cano,  cechii;  disco,  didicl. 

NOTE  1.— Caedo  has  cecldl  in  distinction  from  cecidl  from  cadd. 

NOTE  2.— The  second  syllable  may  be  made  long  by  position  :  cwcwrrl,  momordl. 

592.  In  general,  inflected  forms  retain  the  quantity  of  stem-syl^ 
lables  unchanged : 3 

1  That  is,  the  syllable  preceding  the  characteristic. 

2  Liqul  from  liqued  ;  Unquo  has  llqul.    Statum  from  sisto;  sto  has  statum* 
8  But  see  Dissyllabic  Perfects  and  Supines,  590. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY.  347 

avis,  avem ;  nubes,  nubium ;  levis,  levior,  levissimus ;  moneo,  monebam, 
monul. 

NOTE  1.— Position  may,  however,  affect  the  quantity:  ager,  agrl;  possum,  potul; 
soled,  solutum ;  vol/co,  volutum.1 

NOTE  2.—Ctignd  gives  genul,  genitum,  and  pond,  posul,  positum. 

593.  Derivatives  generally  retain  the  quantity  of  the  stem-syl- 
lables of  their  primitives : 

bonus,  bonitas ;  timeo,  timor ;  animus,  animosus ;  clvis,  clvicus  ;  cura,  euro. 
1.  Words  formed  from  the  same  root  sometimes  show  a  variation  in  the 
quantity  of  stem-syllables : 


dico, 
dux,  ducis, 

dico, 
duco, 

persono, 
rego, 

persona, 
rex,  regis,  regula, 

fides, 

fido, 

secus, 

secius, 

homo, 

hum  anus, 

sedeo, 

sedes,  sedulus, 

lateo, 

laterna, 

sero, 

semen, 

lego, 

lex,  legis, 

sopor, 

Bdpio, 

macer, 

macero, 

suspicor, 

susplcio, 

moveo, 

mobilis, 

tego, 

tegula, 

nota, 

notum, 

vadum, 

vado, 

odium, 

odl, 

voco, 

vox,  vocis. 

NOTE  1. — This  change  of  quantity  in  some  instances  is  the  result  of  contraction,  as 
movibilis,  moibilis,  mobilis,  and  in  others  it  serves  to  distinguish  words  of  the  same 
orthography,  as  the  verbs  legis,  leges,  regis,  reges,  sedes,  from  the  nouns  legis,  leges, 
regis,  reges,  sedes,  or  the  verbs  ducis,  duces, fides,  from  the  nouns  ducis,  duces,  fides. 

NOTE  2. — A  few  derivatives  shorten  the  long  vowel  of  the  primitive :  deer,  acerbus  / 
luceo,  lucerna;  moles,  molestus. 

594.  Compounds  generally  retain  the  quantity  of  their  elements : 
ante-fero,  de-fero,  de-duco,  in-aequalis,  pr6-duco. 

1.  The  change  of  a  vowel  or  diphthong  does  not  affect  the  quantity : 
de-ligo  (legd),  oc-cido  (cado),  oc-cldo  (caedo). 

2.  The  Inseparable  Prepositions  dl,  se,  and  ve  are  long,  re  short ;  ne  some- 
times long  and  sometimes  short : 

dlduco,  seduco,  vecors,  reduco ;  nedum,  nefas : 

NOTE  l.—Di  is  short  in  dirimO  and  disertus. 

NOTE  2.— Ne  is  long  in  nedum,  nemo,  nequam,  nequdquam,  nequlquam,  nequitia, 
and  neve.  In  other  words  it  is  short. 

NOTE  S.—Re  is  sometimes  lengthened  in  a  few  words :  rlligio,  reliquiae,  rlperit, 
rspulit,  retulit,  etc. 

3.  In  a  few  words  the  quantity  of  the  second  element  is  changed.    Thus— 
Juro  gives  -jerO  ;  notus, -nitus  ;  nubd,-nuba:  de-jero,  cog-nitus,  pro-nuba. 

4.  Prae  in  composition  is  usually  short  before  a  vowel :  praeacutus,  prae- 
ustus. 

5.  Pro  is  short  in  the  following  words : 

1  Here  the  first  syllable  is  short  in  ager,  but  common  in  agrl  (578);  long  in  pop 
eum,  sotvd,  volvo  (576,  II.),  but  short  in  potul,  solutum,  and  volutum. 


348 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


procetta,  procul,  prof  anus,  profari,  profectd,  prof&tus,  proficiscor,  profiteer ', 
profugid,  profugut^  profundw,  pronepos,  proneptis,  protercus,  and  in  most 
Greek  words,  as  propteta;  generally  also  in  prof  undo,  propagQ,  prdpdgo, 
prdpind,  rarely  inprOcurd,  prdpelld. 

6.  At  the  end  of  a  verbal  stem  compounded  with/o<?&  or  fid,  e  is  gener- 
ally short : 

calefacio,  calef  10,  labefacid,  patefacio. 

7.  /  is  usually  long  in  the  first  part  of  the  compounds  of  di&  : 
meridies,  prtdie,  postrldie,  cotidie,  trlduum. 

8.  O  is  long  in  eontrd-,  intrd-,  retro-,  and  quando-  in  composition : 
contrvversia,  introduce,  retrowrtt,  quandoque;  but  quanddguidem. 

9.  The  quantity  of  the  final  *  in  ifti,  «5i,  and  «#  is  often  changed  in  com- 
position : 

ibidem,  ibique;  ubique,  vbinam,  «Wrw,  vbicunqw,  necubi,  ficubi ;  utinam, 
utiqut,  sicuti. 

10.  Hodit,  quasi,  quoque^  and  siquidem  have  the  first  syllable  short. 

595.  The  Quantity  of  Stem-Syllables  in  cases  not  provided  for 
by  any  rules  now  given  will  be  best  learned  from  the  Dictionary. 
By  far  the  larger  number  of  such  syllables  will  be  found  to  be 
short.  For  convenience  of  reference,  a  list  of  the  most  important 
primitives  with  long  stem-syllables  is  added  :  * 


ficcr 

celo 

deleo 

fortuna 

lenis 

adulor 

cera 

dlco  (ere) 

fretus 

letum 

aer 

cicada 

dims 

fumua 

h"ber  (era.  erum) 

ala 

clvis 

dives 

funis 

llbo 

alea 

clamo 

dlvus 

funus 

lllium 

altare 

clarus 

donee 

furor  (ari) 

limen 

amarus 

clavus 

donum 

gleba 

limes 

anclle 

Clemens 

dtico 

gloria 

linum 

anhelus 

cllvus 

dudum 

gramen 

lived 

antlquus 

codex 

durus 

gratus 

lorum 

Urn 

comis 

extremus 

hamus 

Itido 

area 

como 

fagus 

heres 

lageo 

areo 

cdnor 

filiiia 

heros 

lumen 

ater 

conns 

fanura 

hora 

tana 

avena 

C'V'.l 

fari 

led 

malo 

bills 

coram 

fecundus 

ima^o 

mane 

bruma 

corona 

fell* 

infims 

manes 

bubo 

crater 

feinina 

Ira 

manO 

cacumen 

crates 

fetus 

janua 

mater 

cahg6 

creber 

ftdo 

lucundus 

maturus 

canilnus 

credo 

figo 

juro 

meta 

canus 

crinis 

filius 

labor  (I) 

metier 

c&per 

crudus 

filum 

lamentum 

miles 

carlna 

cura 

Tinis 

lana 

miror 

carus 

curia 

flavus 

latus  (a,  um) 

mitis 

cedo  (ere) 

debeo 

flunien 

lego  (are) 

moles 

1  Including  a  few  derivatives  and  compounds. 


VERSIFICATION. 


349 


mugeo 

otium 

puber 

sedo 

totus 

muniO 

pagus 

punio 

serenus 

trudo 

munus 

paior 

purus 

serus 

uber 

murus 

panis 

quails 

eido 

udus 

musa 

pared 

radix 

sincerus 

umeo 

muto 

penat5s 

rado 

solor 

tinus 

mutus 

peritus 

ramus 

solus 

uro 

naris 

pllum 

rarus 

sopio 

utor 

navis 

plnus 

remus 

spica 

uva 

nidus 

planus 

rideo 

spina 

uvidus 

nitor  (i) 

plenus 

ripa 

spir6 

vado 

nodus 

pluma 

ritus 

spuma 

vanus 

nonus 

poeta 

rivus 

squaleo 

vates 

nubes 

pomum 

rObur 

stlpo 

velox 

nubo 

pone 

rodo 

strages 

velum 

nudus 

pono 

ruga 

strenuus 

vena 

nuto 

pot6 

rumor 

strideo 

venenum 

olim 

pratum 

rupes 

sudo 

venor 

omen 

pravus 

sanus 

tabes 

verus 

opacus 

primus 

scalae 

talis 

vilis 

oplmus 

privus 

scribd 

telum 

vlnum 

5ra 

promo 

scutum 

temd 

vivo 

6rO 

prora 

sedes 

tibia 

CHAPTEE   II. 
VERSIFICATION. 


SECTION   I. 

GENERAL   VIEW   OF   THE    SUBJECT. 

596.  Latin  Versification  is  based  upon  QUANTITY.  Syllables 
are  combined  into  certain  metrical  groups  called  Feet,  and  feet, 
singly  or  in  pairs,  are  combined  into  Verses.1 

1.  In  quantity  or  time  the  unit  of  measure  is  the  short  syllable,  indicated 
either  by  a  curve  ^  or  by  an  eighth  note  in  music,  ^ .  A  long  syllable 

1  Modern  versification  is  based  upon  ACCENT.  An  English  verse  is  a  regular  com- 
bination of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables,  but  a  Latin  verse  is  a  similar  combina- 
tion of  long  and  short  syllables.  The  rhythmic  accent  or  ictus  (599)  in  Latin  depends 
entirely  upon  quantity.  Compare  the  following  lines : 

Tell'  me    I    not',  in    I    mourn'-ral 
Life'  ia      |    but'  an    |      emp'-ty 


num'-bers, 
dream'. 


Tru'-di- 
At'  fi- 


tur'  di- 
des'  et 


6'. 

ni'. 


es'  di- 
in'-ge- 

Observe  that  in  the  English  lines  the  accent  or  ictus  falls  upon  the  same  syllables  as  in 
prose,  while  hi  the  Lathi  it  falls  uniformly  upon  long  syllables.  On  Latin  Versification, 
see  Ramsay's'  Latin  Prosody';  Schmidt's  'Ehythmik  und  Metrik/  translated  by  Pro- 
fessor White;  Christ's  *  Metrik.1 


350 


METRICAL  FEET. 


has  in  general  twice  the  value  of  a  short  syllable,1  and  is  indicated  either 
by  the  sign  — ,  or  by  a  quarter  note  in  music,  J .  This  unit  of  measure  is 
also  called  a  lime  or  mora. 

NOTE  1. — A  long  syllable  is  sometimes  prolonged  so  as  to  have  the  value 
(1)  of  three  short  syllables,  indicated  by  the  sign  i— ,  or  J^  ;  or  (2)  of  four 
short  syllables,  indicated  by  LJ,  or  J. 

NOTE  2.— A  long  syllable  is  sometimes  shortened  so  as  to  have  the  value 
of  a  short  syllable,  indicated  by  the  sign  > ,  or  J*  .  A  syllable  thus  used 
is  said  to  have  irrational  time. 

597.  The  feet  of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  the  best  Latin 
poets  are — 

I.  FEET  OP  FOUR  TIMES  OB  FOUR  MORAE. 

Dactyl,           one  long  and  two  short,        —  ^  w     J  J*J*        carmina. 
Spondee,        two  long  syllable,  J  J  leges. 


II.  FEET  OF  THREE  TIMES  OR  THREE  MORAE. 


Trochee,2       one  long  and  one  short,         — 
Iambus,          one  short  and  one  long,        w 
Tribrach,        three  short  syllables,             w 

NOTE  1. 

—To  these  may  be  added  the  following  : 

Pyrrhic, 
Anapaest, 
Bacchius, 
Cretic, 
Diiambus, 

w  ^              pater. 
w  w  —         bonitas. 
^  dolores. 
—  w  —        mllites. 
N->  —  ^  —    amoenitas. 

Ditrocl 
Dispon 
Greatei 
Lesser 
Choriai 

—  w    J 


legis. 

parens. 

dominus. 


—  w  —  w  clvitatis. 

praeceptores. 

e, ^  ^>  sententia. 

,     v^  w adolescens. 

,      —  ^  w  — .  impatiens.3 

NOTE  2.— A  Dipody  is  a  group  of  two  feet;  a  Tripody,  of  three;  a  Tetrapody,  of 
four,  etc.  A  Trihemimeris  is  a  group  of  three  half  feet,  i.  e.,  a  foot  and  a  half;  a  Pen- 
themimeris,  of  two  and  a  half;  a  ffephthemimeris,  of  three  and  a  half,  etc. 

598.  METRICAL  EQUIVALENTS. — A  long  syllable  may  be  re- 
solved into  two  short  syllables,  as  equivalent  to  it  in  quantity,  or 
two  short  syllables  may  be  contracted  into  a  long  syllable.  The 
forms  thus  produced  are  metrical  equivalents  of  the  original  feet. 

NOTE.— Thus  the  Dactyl  becomes  a  Spondee  by  contracting  the  two  short  syllables 
into  one  long  syllable;  the  Spondee  becomes  a  Dactyl  by  resolving  the  second  syllable, 
or  an  Anapaest  by  resolving  the  first.  Accordingly,  the  Dactyl,  the  Spondee,  and  the 
Anapaest  are  metrical  equivalents.  In  like  manner  the  Iambus,  the  Trochee,  and  the 
Tribrach  are  metrical  equivalents. 

1  See  foot-note  1,  p.  349. 

*  Sometimes  called  Choree. 

3  The  feet  here  mentioned  as  having  four  syllables  are  only  compounds  of  dissyllabic 
feet.  Thus  the  Diiambus  is  a  double  Iambus ;  the  Ditrochee,  a  double  Trochee ;  the 
Dispondee,  a  double  Spondee;  the  Greater  Ionic,  a  Spondee  and  a  Pyrrhic;  the  Lesser 
Ionic,  a  Pyrrhic  and  a  Spondee ;  the  Choriambus,  a  Trochee  (Choree)  and  an  Iambus. 


ICTUS.— ARSIS  AND   THESIS.— VERSES.  351 

1.  In  certain  kinds  of  verse  admitting  irrational  time  (596,  1,  note  2), 
Spondees,  Dactyls,  and  Anapaests  are  shortened  to  the  time  of  a  Trochee  or 
of  an  Iambus,  and  thus  become  metrical  equivalents  of  each  of  these  feet. 

1)  A  Spondee  used  for  a  Trochee  is  called  an  IRRATIONAL  TROCHEE,  and  is 
marked—  >. 

2)  A  Spondee  used  for  an  Iambus  is  called  an  IRRATIONAL  IAMBUS,  and  is 
marked  >  — . 

3)  A  Dactyl  used  for  a  Trochee  is  called  a  CYCLIC  DACTYL,  and  is  marked 

4)  An  Anapaest  used  for  an  Iambus  is  called  a  CYCLIC  ANAPAEST,  and  is 
marked  v->  v->— . 

599.  ICTUS  on  RHYTHMIC  ACCENT. — As  in  the  pronunciation  of 
a  word  one  or  more  syllables  receive  a  special  stress  of  voice  called 
accent,  so  in  the  pronunciation  of  a  metrical  foot  one  or  more  syl- 
lables receive  a  special  stress  of  voice  called  Rhythmic  Accent  or 
Ictus. 

1.  Feet  consisting  of  both  long  and  short  syllables  have  the  ictus  uniform- 
ly on  the  long  syllables,  unless  used  as  equivalents  for  other  feet. 

NOTE.— Thus  the  Dactyl  and  the  Trochee  have  the  ictus  on  the  first  syllable;  the 
Anapaest  and  the  Iambus  on  the  last. 

2.  EQUIVALENTS  take  the  ictus  of  the  feet  for  which  they  are  used. 

NOTE  1.— Thus  the  Spondee,  when  used  for  the  Dactyl,  takes  the  ictus  of  the  Dactyl 
— 1.  e.,  on  the  first  syllable ;  but  when  used  for  the  Anapaest,  it  takes  the  ictus  of  the 
Anapaest— i.  e.,  on  the  last  syllable. 

NOTE  2.—Feet  consisting  entirely  of  long  or  entirely  of  short  syllables  are  generally 
used  as  equivalents,  and  are  accented  accordingly. 

NOTE  8.— When  two  short  syllables  of  an  equivalent  take  the  place  of  an  accented 
long  syllable  of  the  original  foot,  the  ictus  properly  belongs  to  both  of  these  syllables,  but 
is  marked  upon  the  first.  Thus  a  Tribrach  used  for  an  Iambus  is  marked  ^  &  ^. 

600.  ARSIS  AND  THESIS. — The  accented  part  of  each  foot  is 
called  the  Arsis  (raising),  and  the  unaccented  part,  the  Thesis 
(lowering).1 

601.  VERSES. — Averse  is  a  line  of  poetry  (596).    It  has  one 
characteristic  or  fundamental  foot,  which  determines  the  ictus  for 
the  whole  verse. 

NOTE  1.— Thus  every  dactylic  verse  has  the  ictus  on  the  first  syllable  of  each  foot, 
because  the  Dactyl  has  the  ictus  on  that  syllable. 

1  Greek  writers  on  versification  originally  used  the  terms  ap<n?  and  Oeo-is  of  raising 
and  putting  down  the  foot  in  marching  or  in  beating  time.  Thus  the  Thesis  was  the 
accented  part  of  the  foot,  and  the  Arsis  the  unaccented  part  The  Romans,  however,  ap- 
plied the  terms  to  raising  and  lowering  the  voice  in  reading.  Thus  Arsis  came  to 
mean  the  accented  part  of  the  foot,  and  Thesis  the  unaccented  part.  The  terms  have 
now  been  so  long  and  so  generally  used  in  this  sense  that  it  is  not  deemed  advisable  tq 
attempt  to  restore  them  to  their  original  signification. 


362  NAMES  OF   VERSES. 

NOTE  2.— Two  verses  sometimes  unite  and  form  a  compound  verse ;  see  628,  X. 
NOTE  3.— Metre  means  measure,  and  is  variously  used,  sometimes  designating  the 
measure  or  quantity  of  syllables,  and  sometimes  the  foot  or  measure l  of  a  verse. 

602.  CAESURA  OK  CAESUBAL  PAUSE. — Most  Latin  verses  are 
divided  metrically  into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  each  of  which 
forms  a  rhythmic  series.     The  pause,  however  slight,  which  nat- 
urally separates  these  parts  is  called — 

1.  A  Caesura,*  or  a  Caesural  Pause,  when  it  occurs  within  a  foot ; 
see  611. 

2.  A  Diaeresis,  when  it  occurs  at  the  end  of  a  foot ;  see  611,  2 
and  3. 

NOTE.— Some  verses  consist  of  three  parts  thus  separated  by  caesura  or  diaeresis, 
while  some  consist  of  a  single  rhythmic  series.3 

603.  The  full  metrical  name  of  a  verse  consists  of  three  parts. 
The  first  designates  the  characteristic  foot,  the  second  gives  the 
number  of  feet  or  measures,  and  the  third  shows  whether  the  verse 
is  complete  or  incomplete.     Thus — 

1.  A  Dactylic  Hexameter  Acatalectic  is  a  dactylic  verse  of  six  feet  (Hexa- 
meter), all  of  which  are  complete  (Acatalectic). 

2.  A  Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalectic  is  a  trochaic  verse  of  two  measures 
(Dimeter},  the  last  of  which  is  incomplete  ( Catalectic). 

NOTE  1.— -A  verse  with  a  Dactyl  as  its  characteristic  foot  is  called  Dactylic;  with  a 
Trochee,  Trochaic;  with  an  Iambus,  Iambic,  etc. 

NOTE  2.— A  verse  consisting  of  one  measure  is  called  Monometer  ;  of  two,  Dimeter; 
of  three,  Trimeter;  of  four,  Tetrameter;  of  five,  Pentameter;  of  six,  Hexameter. 

NOTE  3.— A  verse  which  closes  with  a  complete  measure  is  called  Acatalectic;  *  with 
an  incomplete  measure,  Catalectic;  4  with  an  excess  of  syllables,  Hypermetrical.* 

NOTE  4.— The  term  Acatalectic  is  often  omitted,  as  a  verse  may  be  assumed  to  be 
complete  unless  the  opposite  is  stated. 

NOTE  5.— A  Cataleptic  verse  is  said  to  be  Catalectic  in  sylldbam,  in  disyttabum,  or 
in  trisyllabum,  according  as  the  incomplete  foot  has  one,  two,  or  three  syllables. 

NOTE  6.— Verses  are  sometimes  briefly  designated  by  the  number  of  feet  or  measures 
which  they  contain.  Thus  Hexameter  (six  measures)  sometimes  designates  the  Dactylic 
Hexameter  Acatalectic,  and  Senarius  (six  feet),  the  Iambic  Trimeter  Acatalectic. 

604.  Verses  are  often  designated  by  names  derived  from  cele- 
brated poets. 

NOTE  1.— Thus  Alcaic  is  derived  from  Alcaeus;  Archilochian,  from  Archilochus; 
Sapphic,  from  Sappho  ;  Glyconic,  from  Glycon,  etc. 

1  In  dactylic  verses  a  measure  is  a  single  foot,  but  in  trochaic  and  iambic  verses  it 
is  a  dipody  or  a  pair  of  feet. 

3  Caesura  (from  caedo,  to  cut)  means  a  cutting ;  it  cuts  or  divides  the  foot  and  the 
verse  into  parts. 

3  A  verse  consisting  of  a  single  series  is  called  Monocolon;  of  two,  Dicolon;  of 
three,  Tricolon. 

4  From  the  Greek  djcaraXqAcro?,  jcaraAi}jcriK&,  and  vir4pfj.tr po^. 


FIGURES  OF  PROSODY.  353 

NOTE  2.— Verses  sometimes  receive  a  name  from  the  kind  of  subjects  to  which  they 
were  applied :  as  Heroic,  applied  to  heroic  subjects ;  Paroemiac,  to  proverbs,  etc. 

605.  The  FINAL  SYLLABLE  of  a  verse  may  generally  be  either 
long  or  short  at  the  pleasure  of  the  poet. 

606.  A  STANZA  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more  verses  of  dif- 
ferent metres  into  one  metrical  whole  ;  see  631. 

NOTE.— A  stanza  of  two  lines  or  verses  is  called  a  Distich;  of  three,  a  Tristich;  of 
four,  a  Tetrastich. 

607.  RHYTHMICAL  READING. — In  reading  Latin  verse  care  must 
be  taken  to  preserve  the  words  unbroken,  to  show  the  quantity  of 
the  syllables,  and  to  mark  the  poetical  ictus. 

NOTE.— Scanning  consists  in  separating  a  poem  or  verse  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is 
composed.1 

608.  FIGUKES  OF  PROSODY. — The  ancient  poets  sometimes  al- 
lowed themselves,  in  the  use  of  letters  and  syllables,  certain  liber- 
ties generally  termed  Figures  of  Prosody. 

I.  ELISION. — A  final  vowel,  a  final  diphthong,  or  a  final  m  with  the  pre- 
ceding vowel,  is  generally  elided 2  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel 
or  with  h  : 

Monstram  horrendum  Inform6  ingens,  for  Monstrum  horrendum  Informe 
ingens.  Verg. 

NOTE  1.— For  Exceptions,  see  Hiatus,  II.,  below. 

NOTE  2. — Final  e  in  the  interrogative  ne  is  sometimes  dropped  before  a  consonant : 

Pyrrhm1  connubia  servas?  for  Pyrrhme  connubia  servas?  Verg. 

NOTE  8. — In  the  early  poets  final  s  is  often  dropped  before  consonants : 

Ex  omnibu'  rebus,  for  ex  omnibus  rebus.  Lucr. 

NOTE  4.— The  elision  of  a  final  m  with  the  preceding  vowel  is  sometimes  called 
Ecthlipsis* 

NOTE  5. — The  elision  of  a  final  vowel  or  diphthong,  or  of  a  final  m  with  the  preceding 
vowel,  is  sometimes  called  Synaloepha*  or,  if  at  the  end  of  a  line,  Synapheia.* 

II.  HIATUS. — A  final  vowel  or  diphthong  is  sometimes  retained  before 
a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel.     Thus — 

1.  The  interjections  0,  lieu,  and  pro  are  not  elided;  see  Verg.,  Aen.,  X., 
18  ;  Geor.,  II.,  486. 

2.  Long  vowels  and  diphthongs  are  sometimes  retained,  especially  in  the 
arsis  of  a  foot ;  see  Verg.,  EC.,  III.,  6 ;  VII. ,  52. 

1  In  school  this  is  sometimes  done  in  a  purely  mechanical  way,  sacrificing  words  to 
feet;  but  even  this  mechanical  process  is  often  useful  to  the  beginner,  as  it  makes  him 
familiar  with  the  poetical  ictus. 

a  That  is,  partially  suppressed.    In  reading,  it  should  be  lightly  and  indistinctly 
founded,  and  blended  with  the  following  syllable,  as  in  English  poetry : 
"  Th«  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers." 

9  From  the  Greek  «/c0M^iy, 


354:  DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER. 

NOTE  1. — This  is  most  common  in  proper  names. 

NOTE  2.— Yergil  employs  this  form  of  hiatus  more  freely  than  the  other  Latin  poets, 
and  yet  the  entire  Aeneid  furnishes  only  a  short  list  of  examples. 

NOTE  3.— In  the  thesis  a  final  long  vowel  or  diphthong  is  sometimes  shortened  before 
a  short  vowel  instead  of  being  elided ;  see  Verg.,  Aen.,  III.,  211 ;  VIM  507. 

NOTE  4.—Hiatus  with  a  short  final  vowel  is  rare,  but  occurs  even  in  Vergil ;  see  Aen., 
I.,  405;  EC.,  II.,  53. 

III.  SYNAERESIS. — Two  syllables  are  sometimes  contracted  into  one : 
aurea,  delnde,  delnceps,  ildem,  ilsdem,  eaedem,  prohibeat  (pronounced 

proibeat). 

NOTE  1.— In  the  different  parts  of  de#um,  ee  is  generally  pronounced  as  one  syllable: 
deessefdeest,  deerat,  deerit,  etc. ;  so  ei  in  the  verb  anteed :  anteire%  antevrem,  anffis, 
anteit. 

NOTE  2. — /and  u  before  vowels  are  sometimes  used  as  consonants  with  the  sound  of 
y  and  w.  Thus  abiete  and  ariete  become  dbyete  and  aryete;  genua  and  terntes  be- 
come genwa  and  temoes. 

NOTE  3.— In  Plautus  and  Terence,  Synaeresis  is  used  with  great  freedom. 

NOTE  4.— The  contraction  of  two  syllables  into  one  is  sometimes  called  Synisesis. 

IV.  DIAERESIS. — In  poetry,  two  syllables  usually  contracted  into  one 
are  sometimes  retained  distinct : 

aural  for  aurae,  Orpheus  for  Orpheus,  soluendus/or  solvendus,  silua  for 
silva. 

NOTE.— Diaeresis  properly  means  the  resolution  of  one  syllable  into  two,  but  the 
Latin  poets  seldom,  if  ever,  actually  make  two  syllables  out  of  one.  The  examples  gen. 
erally  explained  by  diaeresis  are  only  ancient  forms,  used  for  effect  or  convenience. 

V.  DIASTOLE. — A  syllable  usually  short  is  sometimes  long,  especially 
in  the  arsis  of  a  foot : 

Prlamides/0r  Priamides. 

NOTE  1.— This  poetic  license  occurs  chiefly  in  proper  names  and  in  final  syllables. 
NOTE  2.— Vergil  uses  this  license  quite  freely.    He  lengthens  que  in  sixteen  instances. 

VI.  SYSTOLE. — A  syllable  usually  long  is  sometimes  short : 

tulerunt  for  tulerunt,  steterunt  for  steterunt  (236,  note),  vide'n  for 
videsne. 

NOTE.— This  poetic  license  occurs  most  frequently  in  final  vowels  and  diphthongs. 

VII.  SYNCOPE. — An  entire  foot  is  sometimes  occupied  by  a  single  long 
syllable ;  see  614. 

SECTION  n. 

VARIETIES    OF    VERSE. 

I.  DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER. 

609.  All  Dactylic  Verses  consist  of  Dactyls  and  their  metrical 
equivalents,  Spondees.  The  ictus  is  on  the  first  syllable  of  every 
foot. 


DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER.  355 

610.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter1  consists  of  six  feet.  The  first 
four  are  either  Dactyls  or  Spondees,  the  fifth  a  Dactyl,  and  the 
sixth  a  Spondee  (60S).3  The  scale  is,3 


Quadrupe-  |  dante  pu-  |  trem  soni-  |  tu  quatit  |  ungula  |  campum.  Very. 
Arma  vi-  |  rumque  ca-  |  no  Tro-  |  jae  qui  |  primus  ab  |  oris.   Verg. 
Infan-  |  dum  re-  |  gma  ju-  |  bes  reno-  |  vare  do-  |  lorem.   Verg. 
Illi  5  in-  |  ter  se-  j  se  mag-  j  na  vi  |  bracchia  |  tollunt.   Verg? 

1.  The  scale  of  dactylic  hexameters  admits  sixteen  varieties,  produced  by 
varying  the  relative  number  and  arrangement  of  Dactyls  and  Spondees.  Thus 
a  verse  may  contain  — 

1)  Five  Dactyls  and  one  Spondee,  as  in  the  first  example  above. 

2)  Four  Dactyls  and  two  Spondees,  admitting  four  different  arrangements. 

3)  Three  Dactyls  and  three  Spondees,  admitting  six  different  arrangements. 

4)  Two  Dactyls  and  four  Spondees,  admitting  four  different  arrangements. 

5)  One  Dactyl  and  five  Spondees,  as  in  the  fourth  example. 

2.  EFFECT  OF  DACTYLS.  —  Dactyls  produce  a  rapid  movement,  and  are 
adapted  to  lively  subjects.    Spondees  produce  a  slow  movement,  and  are 
adapted  to  grave  subjects.    But  generally  the  best  effect  is  produced  in  suc- 
cessive lines  by  variety  in  the  number  and  arrangement  of  Dactyls  and  Spon- 
dees. 

3.  SPONDAIC  LINE.  —  The  Hexameter  sometimes  takes  a  Spondee  in  the 

1  This  is  at  once  the  most  important  and  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  Greek  and  Ko- 
man  metres.  In  Greece  it  attained  its  perfection  in  the  poems  of  Homer.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  Italy  in  a  somewhat  imperfect  form  by  the  poet  Ennius  about  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  before  Christ  ;  but  it  was  improved  by  Lucretius,  Catullus,  and  oth- 
ers, until  it  attained  great  excellence  in  the  works  of  the  Augustan  poets.  The  most 
beautiful  and  finished  Latin  Hexameters  are  found  in  the  works  of  Ovid  and  Vergil. 

a  The  Dactylic  Hexameter  in  Latin  is  here  treated  as  Acatalectic,  as  the  Latin  poets 
seem  to  have  regarded  the  last  foot  as  a  genuine  Spondee,  thus  making  the  measure 
complete.  See  Christ,  '  Metrik  der  Griechen  und  Komer,1  pp.  110,  164. 

3  In  this  scale  the  sign  '  marks  the  ictus  (599),  and  _  oo  denotes  that  the  original 
Dactyl,  marked  —  ^  v_x,  may  become  by  contraction  a  Spondee,  marked  --  ,  i.  e.,  that  a 
Spondee  may  be  used  for  a  Dactyl  (598). 

4  Expressed  in  musical  characters,  this  scale  is  as  follows  : 


The  notation  m  Jj  means  that,  instead  of  the  original  .measure  J  Jj  ,  the  equiv- 
alent J  J  may  be  used. 

*  The  final  I  ofilll  is  elided;  see  608,  1. 

•  With  these  lines  of  Vergil  compare  the  following  Hexameters  from  the  EvangeUne 
of  Longfellow  : 

"This  is  the  forest  primeval  ;  but  where  are  the  hearts  that  beneath  it 
Leaped  like  the  roe,  when  he  hears  in  the  woodland  the  voice  of  the  huntsman  ?" 


356  DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER. 

fifth  place.    It  is  then  called  Spondaic,  and  generally  has  a  Dactyl  as  its 
fourth  foot : 

Cara  de-  |  um  sobo-  |  les  mag-  ]  num  Jovis  |  incre-  |  mentum.   Verg. 

NOTE.— In  Vergil,  spondaic  lines  are  used  much  more  sparingly  than  in  the  earlier 
poets,1  and  generally  end  in  words  of  three  or  four  syllables,  as  in  incrementum  above.9 

611.  CAESURA,  OR  CAESURAL  PAUSE.— The  favorite  caesural 
pause  of  the  Hexameter  is  after  the  arsis,  or  in  the  thesis,  of  the 
third  foot : 3 

Anna-  |  ti  ten-  |  dunt;  ||  it  |  clamor  et  |  agmine  |  facto.  Verg. 
Infan-  |  dum,  re-  |  gma,  ||  ju-  |  bes  reno-  |  vare  do-  |  lorem.  Verg. 

NOTE. — In  the  first  line,  the  caesural  pause,  marked  II ,  is  after  tendunt,  after  the 
arsis  of  the  third  foot;  and  in  the  second  line  after  reglna,  in  the  thesis  (na  ju)  of  the 
third  foot.  The  former  is  called  the  Masculine  Caesura,  the  latter  the  feminine  Cae- 
sura.4 

1.  The  CAESURAL  PAUSE  is  sometimes  in  the  fourth  foot,  and  then  an  ad- 
ditional pause  is  often  introduced  in  the  second : 

Credide-  j  rim ;  II  ver  |  illud  e-  j  rat,  II  ver  |  magnus  a-  |  gebat.  Verg. 

2.  BUCOLIC  DIAERESIS. — A  pause  called  the  Bucolic  Diaeresis*  "because 
originally  used  in  the  pastoral  poetry  of  the  Greeks,  sometimes  occurs  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  foot : 

Ingen-  |  tern  cae-  |  Id  soni-  |  turn  dedit ;  II  inde  se-  |  cutus.  Verg. 

NOTE.— The  Bucolic  Diaeresis  was  avoided  by  the  best  Latin  poets,  even  in  treating 
pastoral  subjects.  Vergil,  even  in  his  Bucolics,  uses  it  very  sparingly. 

3.  A  DIAERESIS  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot  without  any  proper  caesural 
pause  is  regarded  as  a  blemish  in  the  verse : 

Pulveru-  |  lentus  e-  \  quis  furit ;  ||  omnes  |  anna  re-  |  quirunt.  Verg. 

*  A  single  poem  of  Catullus,  about  half  as  long  as  a  book  of  the  Aeneid,  contains  more 
spondaic  lines  than  all  the  works  of  Vergil. 

3  But  Vergil  has  two  spondaic  lines  ending  et  mdgnis  dU;  see  Aen.,  III.,  12,  and 
VIII.,  6T9. 

8  That  is,  the  first  rhythmic  series  ends  at  this  point.  This  pause  is  always  at  the 
end  of  a  word,  and  may  be  so  very  slight  as  in  most  cases  not  to  interfere  with  the  sense, 
even  if  no  mark  of  punctuation  is  required;  but  the  best  verses  are  so  constructed  that 
the  caesural  pause  coincides  with  a  pause  in  the  sense ;  see  Christ,  *  Metrik,'  p.  184.  Ac- 
cording to  some  writers,  the  Dactylic  Hexameter  had  its  origin  in  the  union  of  two  ear- 
lier dactylic  verses,  and  the  caesural  pause  now  marks  the  point  of  union ;  see  Christ, 
p.  173. 

4  The  Masculine  Caesura  is  also  called  the  Strong,  or  the  Syllabic,  Caesura,  the  Fem- 
inine the  Weak,  or  the  Trochaic,  Caesura.    Caesuras  are  often  named  from  the  place 
which  they  occupy  in  the  line.    Thus  a  caesura  after  the  arsis  of  the  second  foot  is  called 
Trihemimeral ;  after  the  arsis  of  the  third,  Penthemimeral ;  after  the  arsis  of  the 
fourth,  HepMh&mimeral. 

6  Also  called  the  Biwolic  Caesura,  as  the  term  caetura  ia  often  made  to  include 
diaeresis. 


DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER.  357 

4.  The  ending  of  a  word  within  a  foot  always  produces  a  caesura.    A  line 
may  therefore  have  several  caesuras,  but  generally  only  one  of  these  is  marked 
by  any  perceptible  pause : 

Anna  vi-  |  rumque  ca-  |  no,  II  Tro-  |  jae  qul  |  primus  ab  |  orls.  Verg. 
NOTE.— Here  there  is  a  caesura  in  every  foot  except  the  last,  but  only  one  of  these, 
that  after  cano,  in  the  third  foot,  has  the  caesural  pause.1 

5.  The  caesura,  with  or  without  the  pause,  is  an  important  feature  in  every 
hexameter.    A  line  without  it  is  prosaic  in  the  extreme  : 

Eomae  |  moenia  |  terruit  |  impiger  |  Hannibal  |  armls.  Enn. 
NOTE  1. — The  Penthemimeral 2  caesura  has  great  power  to  impart  melody  to  the 
verse,  but  the  best  effect  is  produced  when  it  is  aided  by  other  caesuras,  as  above. 
NOTE  2. — A  happy  effect  is  often  produced — 

1)  By  combining  the  feminine  caesura  in  the  third  foot  with  the  hephthemimeral 
and  the  trihemimeral : 

Donee  e-  |  ris  fe- 1  Kx,  ||  mul- 1  tos  nume-  j  rabis  a- 1  micos.  Verg. 

2)  By  combining  the  hephthemimeral  with  the  trihemimeral: 

Inde  to- 1  ro  pater  |  Aene-  |  as  sic  |  orsus  ab  |  alto.  Verg. 

NOTE  8. — The  union  of  the  feminine  caesura  with  the  trihemimeral,  common  in 
Greek,  is  somewhat  rare  in  Latin,  but  it  sometimes  produces  an  harmonious  verse: 

Praecipi-  |  tat,  sua-  J  dentque  ca- 1  dentia  |  sidera  |  somnos.  Verg. 
NOTE  4.— In  the  last  two  feet  of  the  verse  there  should  in  general  be  no  caesura  what- 
ever, unless  it  falls  in  the  thesis  of  the  fifth  foot;  but  when  that  foot  contains  two  entire 
words,  a  caesura  is  admissible  after  the  arsis. 

612.  The  ictus  often  falls  upon  unaccented  syllables.     Thus — 

1.  In  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  feet  of  the  verse  it  falls  some- 
times upon  accented  and  sometimes  upon  unaccented  syllables  ;  see 
examples  under  610. 

2.  In  the  third  foot  it  generally  falls  upon  an  unaccented  sylla- 
ble ;  see  examples  under  610. 

3.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  feet  it  generally  falls  upon  accented  syl- 
lables ;  see  examples  under  610. 

613.  The  LAST  WORD  OF  THE  HEXAMETER  is  generally  either 
a  dissyllable  or  a  trisyllable  ;  see  examples  under  610  and  611. 3 

1  The  caesura  with  the  pause  is  variously  called  the  chief  caesura,  the  caeywra  of 
the  verse,  the  caesura  of  the  rhythm,  etc.    In  distinction  from  this  any  other  caesura 
may  be  called  a  caesura,  a  caesura  of  the  foot,  or  a  minor  caesura. 

2  See  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 

3  The  learner  should  be  informed  that  the  niceties  of  structure  which  belong  to  fin- 
ished Latin  hexameters  must  be  sought  only  in  the  poems  of  Vergil  and  Ovid.    The  hap- 
piest disposition  of  caesuras,  the  best  adjustment  of  the  poetical  ictus  to  the  prose  accent, 
and  the  most  approved  structure  in  the  closing  measures  of  the  verse,  can  not  be  expected 
in  the  rude  numbers  of  Ennius,  in  the  scientific  discussions  of  Lucretius,  or  even  in  the 
familiar  Satires  of  Horace.    Those  interested  in  the  peculiarities  of  Latin  hexameters  in 
different  writers  will  find  a  discussion  of  the  subject  in  Lucian  Muller's  work,  lDe  re 
metrics  poStarum  Latlnorum  praeter  Plautum  et  Terentium  librf  septem,1 


358  DACTYLIC   VERSE. 

NOTE  1.—  Spondaic  lines  are  exceptions;  see  610,  8,  note. 

NOTE  2.—  Two  monosyllables  at  the  end  of  a  line  are  not  particularly  objectionable, 
and  sometimes  even  produce  a  happy  effect  : 

Praecipi-  1  tant  cu-  |  rae,  ||  tur-  |  bataque  |  funere  |  mens  est.  Very. 

NOTE  3.—  Est,  even  when  not  preceded  by  another  monosyllable,  may  stand  at  the 
end  of  a  line. 

NOTE  4.—  A  single  monosyllable,  except  est,  is  not  often  used  at  the  end  of  the  line, 
except  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis  or  humor: 

Parturi-  |  unt  mon-  1  tea,  ||  nas-  j  cetur  |  ridicu-  1  lus  mus.  Hor. 

NOTE  5.—  In  Vergil,  twenty-one  lines,  apparently  hypermetrical  (603,  note  8),  are 
supposed  to  elide  a  final  vowel  or  a  final  em  or  wn  before  the  initial  vowel  of  the  next 
line;  see  Aen.,  I.,  882  ;  Geor.,  I.,  295.  See  also  608,  1.,  note  5. 

II.  OTHER  DACTYLIC  VERSES. 

614.  DACTYLIC  PENTAMETER.1—  The  Dactylic  Pentameter  con- 
sists of  two  parts  sbparated  by  a  diaeresis.  Each  part  consists  of 
two  Dactyls  and  a  long  syllable.  The  Spondee  may  take  the  place 
of  the  Dactyl  in  the  first  part,  but  not  in  the  second  : 


Admoni-  |  tu  coe-  |  pi  1  1  fortior  |  esse  tu-  |  o.   Ovid. 

615.  ELEGIAC  DISTICH.  —  The  Elegiac  Distich  consists  of  the 
Hexameter  followed  by  the  Pentameter  : 

Semise  |  pulta  vi-  |  rum  1  1  cur-  j  vis  feri-  |  untur  a-  |  ratrls 
Ossa,  ru-  |  ino-  |  sas  1  1  occulit  |  herba  do-  |  mus.  Ovid. 

NOTE  1.—  In  reading  the  Elegiac  Distich,  the  Pentameter,  including  pauses,  should 
of  course  occupy  the  same  time  as  the  Hexameter. 

NOTE  2.  —  Elegaic  composition  should  be  characterized  by  grace  and  elegance.  Both 
members  of  the  distich  should  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  most  rigid  rules  of 
metre.  The  sense  should  be  complete  at  the  end  of  the  couplet.  Ovid  furnishes  us  the 
best  specimens  of  this  style  of  composition. 

616.  The  DACTYLIC  TETRAMETER  is  identical  with  the  last  four 
feet  of  the  Hexameter  : 

Ibimus  |  o  soci-  |  1,  comi-  |  tesque.  Hor. 

1  The  name  Pentameter  is  founded  on  the  ancient  division  of  the  line  into  five  feet; 
the  first  and  second  being  Dactyls  or  Spondees,  the  third  a  Spondee,  the  fourth  and  fifth 
Anapaests. 

8  In  musical  characters: 

JrD|JrB|Jr|JJ3|.I.D|J.-,or 


Thus,  in  reading  Pentameters,  a  pause  may  be  introduced  after  the  long  syllable  in  the 
third  foot,  or  that  foot  may  be  lengthened  so  as  to  fill  the  measure. 


TROCHAIC   VERSK  359 

NOTE.— -In  compound  verses,  as  in  the  Greater  Archilochian,  the  tetrameter  in 
composition  with  other  metres  has  a  Dactyl  in  the  fourth  place ;  see  628,  X. 

617.  The  DACTYLIC  TRIMETER  CATALECTIC  is  identical  with 
the  second  half  of  the  Dactylic  Pentameter : 

Arbori-  |  busque  co-  |  mae.  Hor. 
NOTB.— The  Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic  is  also  known  as  the  Lesser  ArcMlocMan. 

ILL  TROCHAIC  VERSE. 

618.  The  TROCHAIC  DIPODY,  the  measure  in  Trochaic  verse,1 
consists  of  two  Trochees,  the  second  of  which  is  sometimes  irra- 
tional (598,  1,  1)  ) — i.  e.,  it  has  the/<?rm  of  a  Spondee  with  the  time 

of  a  Trochee  : 

-*•  ^  -*•  b    or 

NOTE  1.— By  the  ordinary  law  of  equivalents  (598),  a  Tribrach  &  ^  ^  may  take  the 
place  of  the  Trochee  -*-  w,  and  an  apparent  Anapaest  ^  w  >  the  place  of  the  Irrational 
Trochee  -*•  >  .2  In  proper  names  a  cyclic  Dactyl  -^  ^  (598, 1, 3) )  may  occur  in  either 
foot. 

NOTE  2.— In  the  Trochaic  Dipody,  the  first  foot  has  a  heavier  ictus  than  the  second. 

NOTE  3.— A  syllable  is  sometimes  prefixed  to  a  Trochaic  verse.  A  syllable  thus  used 
is  called  Anacrusis  (upward  beat),  and  is  separated  from  the  following  measure  by  the 
mark  .:  . 

619.  The  TROCHAIC  DIMETER  CATALECTIC  consists  of  two  Tro- 
chaic Dipodies  with  the  last  foot  incomplete.    In  Horace  it  admits 
no  equivalents,  and  has  the  following  scale  : 

J-^  —  ^,   \  JL^,±£ 

Aula  divi-  |  tern  inanet.  Hor. 
NOTE.— A  Trochaic  Tripody  occurs  in  the  Greater  Archilochian ;  see  628,  X. 

1.  The  Alcaic  Enneasyllabic  verse  which  forms  the  third  line  in  the  Al- 
caic stanza  is  a  Trochaic  Dimeter  with  Anacrusis : 

£,  :  -^  w  —  b  |  -*•  ^  —  o 
Pu-  ;  er  quis  ex  au-  |  la  capillls.  Hor. 

620.  The  TROCHAIC  TETRAMETER  CATALECTIC  consists  of  four 
Trochaic  Dipodies  with  the  last  foot  incomplete.     There  is  a  diae- 
resis (602,  2)  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  foot,  and  the  incomplete  dipody 
admits  no  equivalents : 

^.W->|^W_>,,^^_>|^W^A.3 

Primus  ad  ci-  |  bum  vocatur,  1 1  prlmo  pulmen-  |  turn  datur.  Plant. 

1  See  601,  note  8,  with  foot-note. 

a  Thus  in  the  second  foot  of  a  Trochaic  Dipody  the  poet  may  use  a  Trochee,  a  Tribrach, 
ft  Spondee,  or  an  Anapaest ;  but  the  Spondee  and  the  Anapaest  are  pronounced  in  the 
came  time  as  the  Trochee  or  the  Tribrach— i.  e.,  they  have  irrational  time. 

8  Only  the  leading  ictus  of  each  dipody  is  here  marked. 


360  IAMBIC  VERSE. 

Nora  1.-— This  is  simply  the  union  of  two  Trochaic  Dimeters,  the  first  acatalectic 
and  the  second  catalectic,  separated  by  diaeresis.1 

NOTE  2.— In  Latin  this  verse  is  used  chiefly  in  comedy,  and  accordingly  admits  great 
licence  in  the  use  of  feet.  The  Irrational  Trochee  (598, 1, 1) )  and  its  equivalents  may 
occur  in  any  foot  except  in  the  last  dipody. 

NOTE  8.— The  Trochaic  Tetrameter  Acatalectic  also  occurs  in  the  earlier  poets : 
Ipse  suinmis  |  saxis  fixus  ||  asperis  c-  |  visceratus.  Enn. 

IV.  IAMBIC  VERSE. 

621.  The  IAMBIC  DIPODY,  the  measure  of  Iambic  verse,  consists 
of  two  Iambi,  the  first  of  which  is  sometimes  irrational  (598,  1,  2)  ) 
— i.  e.,  it  has  inform  of  a  Spondee  with  the  time  of  an  Iambus  : 

>,^.^,JL    or    ^  J  ^  J 

NOTE  1.— The  Tribrach  for  the  Iambus,  and  the  Dactyl 2  or  Anapaest 2  for  the  Irra- 
tional Iambus,  are  rare,  except  in  comedy. 

NOTE  2.— In  the  Ionic  Dipody,  the  first  foot  has  a  heavier  ictus  than  the  second. 

622.  The  IAMBIC  TRIMETER,  also  called  Senarius,  consists  of 
three  Iambic  Dipodies.     The  Caesura  is  usually  in  the  third  foot, 
but  may  be  in  the  fourth  : 

>-Z.w_|>,.2Lw_|>.Aw^3 

Quid  obsera-  |  tls  1 1  auribus  |  fundis  preces  ?  Hbr. 
Neptunus  al-  |  to  1 1  tundit  hi-  J  bernus  said.  EOT. 
Has  inter  epu-  |  las  1 1  ut  juvat  j  pastas  oves.  Hor.* 

1.  In  PROPER  NAMES,  a  Cyclic  Anapaest  is  admissible  in  any  foot  except 
the  last,  but  must  be  in  a  single  word. 

2.  In  HORACE  the  only  feet  freely  admitted  are  the  Iambus  and  the  Spon' 
dee ;  their  equivalents,  the  Tribrach,  the  Dactyl,  and  the  Anapaest,  are  used 
very  sparingly.    The  Tribrach  never  occurs  in  the  fifth  foot  and  only  once 
in  the  first.    The  Anapaest  occurs  only  twice  in  all. 

3.  In  COMEDY  great  liberty  is  taken,  and  the  Spondee  and  its  equivalents 
are  freely  admitted  in  any  foot  except  the  last. 

1  Compare  the  corresponding  English  measure,  in  which  the  two  parts  appear  as 
separate  lines :  «  Lives/  of  gwat  men  j  all,  wmjnd  ug 

"We'  can  make  our  |  lives'  sublime, 
And',  departing,  |  leave'  behind  us 

Footprints  on  the  |  sands'  of  time." 

3  The  Dactyl  thus  used  has  the  time  of  an  Iambus  and  is  marked  >  ^  ^;  the  Ana- 
paest is  cyclic  (598, 1,  4),  marked  ^  ^-. 

3  This  same  scale,  divided  thus,  ^  •  JL^  —  :&\-t-\^  —  '£,\-*-^-—  A,  repre- 
sents Trochaic  Trimeter  Catalectic  with  Anacrusis.     Thus  all  Iambic  verses  may  be 
treated  as  Trochaic  verses  with  Anacrusis. 

4  Compare  the  English  Alexandrine,  the  last  line  of  the  Spenserian  stanza ; 

When  Phoe'bus  lifts  |  his  head'  out  of  |  the  wia'ter's  wave. 


IONIC  VERSE.  361 

4.  The  CHOLIAMBUS  is  a  variety  of  Iambic  Trimeter  with  a  Trochee  in  the 

sixth  foot  :  l 

Miser  Catul-  j  le  desinas  j  ineptlre.  Catul. 

623.  The  IAMBIC  TRIMETER  CATALECTIC  occurs  in  Horace  with 
the  following  scale  : 


Vocatus  at-  |  que  non  voca-  |  tus  audit.  Hor. 

NOTE.—  The  Dactyl  and  the  Anapaest  are  not  admissible  ;  the  Tribrach  occurs  only  in 
the  second  foot 

624.  The  IAMBIC  DIMETER  consists  of  two  Iambic  Dipodies  : 

e^.^-  |  >  -^^^ 

Queruntur  in  |  silvis  aves.  Hor. 
Imhres  nives-  J  que  comparat.  Hor. 
Ast  ego  vicis-  |  sim  rlsero.  Hor. 

NOTE  1.—  Horace  admits  the  Dactyl  only  in  the  first  foot,  the  Tribrach  only  in  the 
second,  the  Anapaest  not  at  all. 

NOTE  2.—  Iambic  Dimeter  is  sometimes  catalectic. 

625.  The  IAMBIC  TETRAMETER  consists  of  four  Iambic  Dipo- 
dies.    It  belongs  chiefly  to  comedy  : 

Quantum  intellex-  |  1  modo  senis  1  1  sententiam  |  de  nuptils,  Ter. 

NOTE.—  Iambic  Tetrameter  is  sometimes  catalectic  : 

Quot  commodas  |  res  attuli?  ||  quot  autem  ade  |  ml  curas.  Ter. 

V.  IONIC  VERSE. 

626.  The  Ionic  Verse  in  Horace  consists  entirely  of  Lesser 
Ionics.     It  may  be  either  Trimeter  or  Dimeter  : 


Neque  pugno  |  neque  segni  j  pede  vlctus  ; 
Catus  idem  j  per  apertum.  Hor. 

NOTE  1.—  In  this  verse  the  last  syllable  is  not  common,  but  is  often  long  only  by 
position  (p.  838,  foot-note  3).  Thus  us  in  victus  is  long  before  c  in  catus. 

NOTE  2.—  The  Ionic  Tetrameter  Catalectic,  also  called  Sotadean  Verse,  occurs 
rtiiefly  in  comedy.  It  consists  in  general  of  Greater  Ionics,  but  in  Martial  it  has  a  Ditro- 
chee  as  the  third  foot  : 

JL_WV,|  JL  —  V.-.I.Z.^OV.I  -t.±*.~7; 

/\ 

Has  cum  gemi-  1  nil  compede  |  dedicat  ca-  1  tenas.  Mart. 

1  Choliambus,  or  /Season,  means  lame  or  limping  Iambus,  and  is  so  called  from 
its  limping  movement.  It  is  explained  as  a  Trochaic  Trimeter  Acatalectic  with  Anacru- 
sis, and  with  syncope  (608,  VII.)  in  the  fifth  foot.  The  example  here  given  may  be  rep- 
resented thus  :w  j  -£.v_,_  v^JL^  —  w  L£-  —  vU. 


362  LOGAOEDIC  VERSE. 

VI.    LOGAOEDIC   VERSE. 

627.  Logaoedic  l  Verse  is  a  special  variety  of  Trochaic  Verse. 
The  Irrational  Trochee  j,  >  ,  the  Cyclic  Dactyl  -A^  w,  and  the  Syn- 
copated Trochee  L-  (608,  VII.)  are  freely  admitted.     It  has  an  ap- 
parently light  ictus.3 

NOTE.—  Logaoedic  verses  show  great  variety  of  form,  but  a  few  general  types  will  in- 
dicate the  character  of  the  whole. 

628.  The  following  Logaoedic  verses  appear  in  Horace  : 
I.  The  ADONIC  : 


Montis  1-  J  mag6.  EOT. 
n.  The  FIRST  PHERECRATIC  3  or  the  ARISTOPHANIC  : 


Cur  neque  |  mill-  |  tans.  EOT. 

NOTE.—  Pherecratic  is  the  technical  term  applied  to  the  regular  Logaoedic  Tripody. 
It  is  called  the  First  or  Second  Pherecratic  according  as  its  Dactyl  occupies  the  first  or 
the  second  place  in  the  verse.  In  each  form  it  may  be  acatalectic  or  catalectic  : 

1)  -^  ^  |  -^  w  |  -£-  o  or  catalectic  :  ~^>  w  |  •*•  w  |  &  A 
8)  -^  >  |  -^x  w  J  -f-  O  or  catalectic:  -*•>  |  -^  ^  |  ^  A 

In  Logaoedic  verse  the  term  basis  or  base,  marked  x  ,  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  foot  or 
feet  which  precede  the  Cyclic  Dactyl.  Thus,  In  the  Second  Pherecratic,  the  first  foot  _> 
is  the  base. 

HI.  The  SECOND  GLYCONIC  3  CATALECTIC  : 

-^>  |^_|^|^A  or  J.N/ 

Donee  |  gratus  e-  |  ram  ti-  j  bi.  EOT. 

NOTE  1.—  Glyconic  is  the  technical  term  applied  to  the  regular  Logaoedic  Tetrapody. 
It  is  called  the  First,  Second,  or  Third  Glyconic  according  as  its  Dactyl  occupies  the  first, 
second,  or  third  place  in  the  verse.  In  each  form  it  may  be  either  acatalectic  or  catalectic. 

NOTE  2.—  The  Second  Glyconic  sometimes  has  a  Syncope  (608,  VII.)  in  the  third  foot. 

IV.  The  LESSER  ASCLEPIADEAN  s  consists  of  two  Catalectic  Phe- 
recraticSj  a  Second  and  a  First  : 

-A>|-^^|L_||-^W|^W|^A 
Maece-  |  nas  ata  |  vis  ||  edite  |  regi-  |  bus.  Eor. 

1  From  Aoyos,  prose,  and  doiSrj,  song,  applied  to  verses  which  resemble  prose. 

3  The  free  use  of  long  syllables  in  the  thesis  causes  the  poetical  ictus  on  the  arsis  to 
appear  less  prominent 

8  Pherecratic,  Glyconic,  and  Asclepiadean  verses  may  be  explained  as  Choriambic  : 
Pherecratic,  •*-  ^  ^  •*-  \  ^  -£-  \  o  A 
First  Glyconic,  -^^^^|^-^|^b£ 
Asclepiadean,  -*->  |-^^w-^|-£.wwJL|wi& 


LOGAOEDIC  VERSE.  363 

V.  The  GREATER  ASCLEPIADEAN  consists  of  three  catalectic 
verses,  a  Second  Pherecratic,  an  Adonic,  and  a  First  Pherecratic  : 

-*->  |-A^w|i_||-^^|i_|-^^|^^|^A 
Seu  plu-  j  res  hie-  |  m£s,  1  1  seu  tribu-  |  it  1  1  Juppiter  |  ulti-  |  mam.  Hor. 

VI.  The  LESSER  SAPPHIC  consists  of  a  Trochaic  Dipody  and  a 
First  Pherecratic  : 


Namque  |  me  sil-  |  va  lupus  |  in  Sa-  \  bina.  HOT. 

VII.  The  GREATER  SAPPHIC  consists  of  two  Catalectic  Glyconics, 
a  Third  and  a  First  with  Syncope  : 

^w|-*->  |^V^|L_H-^W|^-^|I_|^A 
Inter  |  aequa-  |  les  equi-  |  tat,  1  1  Gallica  |  nee  lu-  |  pa-  |  tls.  Hor. 

VIII.  The  LESSER  ALCAIC  consists  of  two   Cyclic  Dactyls  and 
two  Trochees: 


Purpure-  |  o  van-  j  us  co-  |  lore.  Hor. 

IX.  The  GREATER  ALCAIC  consists  of  a  Trochaic  Dipody  with 
Anacrusis  and  a  Catalectic  First  Pherecratic  : 


Vi-  :  des  ut  |  alta  |  stet  nive  |  candi-  |  dum.  Hor. 

X.  The  GREATER  ARCHILOCHIAN  x  consists  of  a  Dactylic  Tetra- 
meter (616)  followed  by  a  Trochaic  Tripody.  The  first  three  feet 
are  either  Dactyls  or  Spondees  ;  the  fourth,  a  Dactyl  ;  and  the  last 
three,  Trochees  : 


Vitae  |  summa  bre-  |  vis  spern  |  nOs  vetat,  1  1  incho-  |  are  J  longam.  Hor. 

NOTE.—  -This  verse  may  be  explained  either  as  Logaoedic  or  as  Compound.  With  the 
first  explanation,  the  Dactyls  are  cyclic  and  the  Spondees  have  irrational  time;  with  the 
second  explanation,  the  first  member  of  the  verse  has  the  Dactyl  as  its  characteristic  foot 
and  the  second  member  the  Trochee  ;  see  601,  note  2. 

629.  The  following  Logaoedic  verses  not  used  in  Horace  de- 
serve mention  : 

I.  The  PHALAECIAN  is  a  Logaoedic  Pentapody:  a 

^b|^k>w|-^^|-^^|-^^ 
Non  est  |  vlvere,  |  sed  va-  |  lere  |  vita.  Mart. 

1  For  the  Lesser  Archilochian,  see  617,  note. 

*  This  verse  differs  from  the  Lesser  Sapphic,  in  having  the  Dactyl  in  the  second  foot, 
while  the  latter  has  the  Dactyl  in  the  third, 


364  LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE. 

H.  The  SECOND  PRIAPEAN  consists  of  two  Catalectic  Second 
Glyconics  with  Syncope  : 

^>,|^w|^w|L-.lI^b|-A_,~|l_|^A 

Quercus  |  arida  |  rusti-  |  ca  1  1  confer-  j  mata  se  |  oil-  |  rl.  Catul. 
SECTION    III. 

THE  VERSIFICATION  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  LATIN  POETS. 

630.  Vergil  and  Juvenal  use  the  Dactylic  Hexameter;  Ovid, 
the  Hexameter  in  his  Metamorphoses  and  the  Elegiac  Distich  in  his 
Epistles  and  other  works  ;  Horace,  the  Hexameter  in  his  Epistles 
and  Satires,  and  a  variety  of  metres  in  his  Odes  and  Epodes. 

LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE. 

631.  For  convenience  of  reference,  an  outline  of  the  lyric 
metres  of  Horace  is  here  inserted. 

Stanzas  of  Four  Verses  or  Lines. 

I.  ALCAIC  STANZA.—  First  and  second  lines,  Greater  Alcaics  (628,  IX.)  ; 
third,  Trochaic  Dimeter  with  Anacrusis  (619,  1);  fourth,  Lesser  Alcaic 
(628,  Vm.): 


3.  >:—v^  —  w|—  v^  —  o 

4.  -Jw  |  —  .w|-^|-w 

In  thirty-seven  Odes  :  I.,  9,  16,  17,  26,  27,  29,  31,  34,  35,  37  ;  II.,  1,  3,  6, 
7,  9,  11,  13,  14,  15,  17,  19,  20;  III.,  1,  2,  3,  4,  6,  6,  17,  21,  23,  26,  29;  IV., 
4,  9,  14,  15. 

II.  SAPPHIC  STANZA.—  The  first  three  lines,  Lesser  Sapphics  (628,  VI.)  ; 
the  fourth,  Adonic  (628,  1.)  : 


M 

2.1   -w|- 
3.) 


2. 
3. 

4.       --  -w|-w 

In  twenty-six  Odes  :  I.,  2,  10,  12,  20,  22,  25,  30,  32,  38  ;  II.,  2,  4,  6,  8, 
10,  16  ;  III.,  8,  11,  14,  18,  20,  22,  27  ;  IV.,  2,  6,  11  ;  and  Secular  Hymn. 

III.  GREATER  SAPPHIC  STANZA.  —  First  and  third  lines,  First  Glyconics 
Catalectic  with  Syncope  in  the  third  foot  (608,  VII.)  ;  second  and  fourth 
lines,  Greater  Sapphics  : 

«|-~|i-|«  A 


LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE.  365 


In  Ode  I.,  8. 

IV.  FIRST  ASCLEPIADEAN  GLYCONIC  STANZA. — The  first  three  lines, 
Lesser  Asclepiadeans  (628,  IV.) ;  the  fourth,  Second  Glyconic  Catalectic 
(628,  III.) :      j 

3.  ) 

4.  —  >  |  — v>  w  |  —  w  |  ^  A 

In  nine  Odes:  I,  6,  15,  24,  33;  II.,  12;  III.,  10,  16;  IV.,  5,  12. 

V.  SECOND  ASCLEPIADEAN  GLYCONIC  STANZA. — The  first  two  lines,  Lesser 
Asclepiadeans  (628,  IV.) ;  the  third,  Second  Glyconic  Catalectic  with  Syn- 
cope in  the  third  foot  (628,  III.,  note  2);  the  fourth,  Second  Glyconic 
Catalectic  (628,  III.) : 


3.  ->|^w|L.|*A 

4.  ->  |-^|-^|^A 

In  seven  Odes:  I.,  5,  14,  21,  23  ;  III.,  7,  13  ;  IV.,  13. 

VI.  GLYCONIC  ASCLEPIADEAN  STANZA.  —  First  and  third  lines,  Second 
Glyconics  Catalectic  (628,  III.)  ;  second  and  fourth,  Lesser  Asclepiadeans 
(628,  IV.): 


In  twelve  Odes:  I.,  3,  13,  19,  36;  III.,  9,  16,  19,  24,  25,  28;  IVM  1,  3. 
VII.  LESSEE  ASCLEPIADEAN  STANZA.  —  Four  Lesser  Asclepiadeans  : 


In  three  Odes  :  I.,  1  ;  III.,  30;  IV.,  8. 

VIII.  GREATER  ASCLEPIADEAN  STANZA.  —  Four  Greater  Asclepiadeans 
(628,  V.): 

1. 

g' 

4. 
In  three  Odes:  I.,  11,  18;  IV.,  10. 


366  LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE. 

IX.  DOUBLE  ALCMANIAN  STANZA.  —  First  and  third  lines,  Dactylic  Hexa- 
meters (610);  second  and  fourth,  Dactylic  Tetrameters  (616): 


2'i    -c^l-c^l-^^j-^ 
4.  ) 

In  two  Odes  :  I.,  7,  28. 

NOTE.—  This  stanza  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  Alcmanian  stanzas;  see  XIX.  below. 

X.  TROCHAIC  STANZA.  —  First  and  third  lines,  Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalec- 
tic  (619)  ;  second  and  fourth,  Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  (623)  : 


1-i   _w_w|_ 
3.) 


In  Ode  II.,  18. 

XI.  DACTYLIC  ARCHILOCHIAN  STANZA.  —  First  and  third  lines,  Dactylic 
Hexameters  ;  second  and  fourth,  Catalectic  Dactylic  Trimeters  (617,  note): 

*' 

o. 

J;[-~  -i  —  i" 

In  Ode  IV.,  7. 

XII.  GREATER  ARCHILOCHIAN  STANZA.  —  First  and  third  lines,  Greater  Ar- 
chilochians  (628,  X.)  ;  second  and  fourth,  Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  (623): 


In  Ode  I.,  4. 

NOTE.—  The  second  and  fourth  lines  are  sometimes  read  with  syncope,  as  follows: 
>:%_^_>|_^_w|L_|vB,A 

XIII.  IONIC  STANZA.  —  First  and  second  lines,  Ionic  Dimeters  (626)  ; 
third  and  fourth,  Ionic  Trimeters  (626)  : 

' 


In  Ode  III.,  12. 

NOTE.— This  ode  is  variously  arranged  in  different  editions,  sometimes  in  stanzas  of 
three  lines  and  sometimes  of  four. 


LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE.  36? 

Stanzas  of  Three  Lines. 

XIV.  FIRST  ARCHILOCHIAN  STANZA.  —  First  line,  Hexameter;  second, 
Iambic  Dimeter  ;  third,  Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic  : 

1.  —  oo  |  —  oo  |  —  oo  |  —  oo  |  —  w  w  |  —  ^ 

2.  >_w_|>,-~*_ 

3.  —  «w  w  |  —  wv^l^A 
In  Epode  13. 

NOTE.—  In  some  editions,  the  second  and  third  lines  are  united. 

XV.  SECOND  ARCHILOCHIAN  STANZA.  —  First  line,  Iambic  Trimeter  ;  sec- 
ond, Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic  ;  third,  Iambic  Dimeter  : 

1.  >  -^-|>  -v-,-|  >,-w* 

2.  -w^|-^^|^A 

3.  >_^_|>_w^ 

In  Epode  11. 

NOTE.—  -In  some  editions,  the  second  and  third  lines  are  united. 

Stanzas  of  Two  Lines. 

XVI.  IAMBIC  STANZA.  —  First  line,  Iambic  Trimeter;  second,  Iambic 

Dimeter:         ..    >  ,  >  ,  >          ^ 

1.  O  —  w  —  I  C/  —  •  w—  I  C  —  •  w  ^ 

2.  >_w_|>-w^ 
In  the  first  ten  Epodes. 

XVII.  FIRST  PYTHIAMBIC   STANZA.—  First  line,   Dactylic  Hexameter; 
second,  Iambic  Dimeter  (624)  : 

1.  —  00|—  00|—  00|—  00|—  ww|—  ^ 

2.  >_w-|>-w^ 
In  Epodes  14  and  15. 

XVIII.  SECOND  PYTHIAMBIC  STANZA.—  -First  line,  Dactylic  Hexameter  ; 
second,  Iambic  Trimeter  : 

1.    —  00|—  00|—  00|—00|—  WN^|—  ^ 

2    >,  _  w  —  I  >  —  v^  —  I  ^,  _      i=i 
In  Epode  16. 

XIX.  ALCMANIAN  STANZA.  —  First  line,   Dactylic  Hexameter;  second, 
Dactylic  Tetrameter  : 

1.  —00|—00|—  00|—  00|—  ww|—  ^ 

2.  -oo|-oo|-^w|-^ 
In  Epode  12. 

Not  grouped  into  Stanzas. 

XX.  IAMBIC  TRIMETER: 


In  Epode  17. 


368 


METRES  OF  CATULLUS. 


632.  INDEX  TO  THE  LYEIC  METKES  OF  HOBACE. 

The  Roman  numerals  refer  to  articles  in  the  preceding  outline,  631. 


ODES. 
1    .  . 

BOOK  I. 

METRES. 

VII. 

ODES. 

4   . 

METP.ES. 
II. 

ODES. 

26  .. 

METRES. 
I. 

5   . 

I. 

27  .. 

II. 

2  .. 

II. 

6  . 

II. 

28  .. 

VI. 

3   .. 

VI. 

7  . 

I. 

29   .  . 

I 

4  .  . 

XII. 

8 

.         .  .                  II. 

30  .. 

VII 

5   .  . 

V. 

9 

I. 

1 

BOOK  IV. 
....         VI 

6   .  . 

IV. 

10 

II. 

7  .. 

IX. 

11   . 

I. 

8  .. 

III. 

1?, 

IV. 

2   .. 

II. 

9  .  . 

I. 

13  . 

I. 

3   .  . 

VI. 

10  .  . 

n. 

14  . 

I. 

4  .. 

I. 

11  .. 

VIII. 

15 

I. 

5   .. 

IV. 

12  .. 

n. 

16 

II. 

6   .. 

II. 

13  .. 

VI. 

17 

I. 

7  .  . 

XI. 

14  .  . 

V. 

18   . 

x. 

8  .. 

VII. 

15  .. 

IV. 

19   . 

I. 

9 

I. 

16  .. 

I. 

20  . 

I. 

10  .  . 

VIII. 

17  .. 

I. 

1 

BOOK  III. 
I. 

11   .. 

II. 

18  .. 

VIII. 

12  .. 

IV. 

19  .. 

....  VI. 

13   .. 

V. 

20  .. 

II. 

2  . 

I. 

14  .  . 

I. 

21   .. 

V. 

3   . 

I. 

15  .. 

I. 

22  .. 

II. 

4 

I. 

EPODES 
1     . 

EPODES. 

METRES. 

XVI. 

23  .  . 

.  ^  V. 

5   . 

I. 

24   .. 

IV. 

6   . 

I. 

25  .. 

II. 

7 

V 

26  .. 

I. 

8  . 

II. 

2   .  . 

XVI. 

27  .  . 

I. 

9   . 

VI. 

3   .  . 

XVI. 

28 

IX. 

10  . 

IV. 

4 

XVI. 

29 

I. 

11 

....         II 

5   .  . 

XVI. 

30  .. 

II. 

12   . 

XIII. 

6   .  . 

XVI. 

31   .  . 

I. 

13   . 

V. 

7 

XVI. 

32  .  . 

II. 

14   . 

II. 

8  .. 

XVI. 

33     . 

IV. 

15  . 

VI 

9  .  . 

XVI. 

34   .. 

I. 

16 

IV. 

10  .. 

XVI. 

35     . 

I. 

17 

I. 

11   .. 

XV. 

36 

VI. 

18  . 

n. 

12  .. 

XIX. 

37 

I. 

19   . 

VI. 

13  .. 

XIV. 

38   .. 

II. 

flO 

ii. 

14  .. 

XVII. 

1 

BOOK  II. 
I. 

21   . 

i. 

15   .. 

XVII. 

22  . 

ii. 

16   .. 

XVIII. 

23   . 

i. 

17 

XX. 

2 

II 

24 

VI. 

SECULAR  HYMN,        II. 

3  . 

I. 

?,5 

VI. 

633.  The  metres  of  the  following  poets  must  be  briefly  men- 
tioned : 

L  CATULLUS  uses  chiefly  (1)  the  Elegiac  Distich  (615) ;  (2)  Phalaecian 


METRES  OF  MARTIAL,  PLAUTUS,  ETC.  369 

verse  (629, 1.) ;  (3)  Choliambus  or  Scazon  (622,  4) ;  (4)  Iambic  Trimeter 
(622)  ;  (5)  Priapean  (629,  II.). 

II.  MARTIAL  uses  largely  the  Choliambus  or  Scazon  and  the  Phalaecian 
verse. 

NOTE  1.— Martial  also  uses  Iambic  and  Dactylic  measures. 

NOTE  2. — Seneca  in  his  choral  odes  imitates  the  lyric  metres  of  Horace.    He  uses 
Sapphics  very  freely,  and  often  combines  them  into  systems  closing  with  the  Adonic. 

NOTE  3. — Seneca  also  uses  Anapaestic l  verse  with  Spondees  and  Dactyls  as  equiv- 
alents.   This  consists  of  one  or  more  dipodies : 

Venient  anms  |  saecula  sens. 

III.  Plautus  and  Terence  use  chiefly  various  Iambic  and  Trochaic  me- 
tres, but  they  also  use — 

1.  BACCHiAC1  METRES,  generally  Tetrameter  or  Dimeter: 

Multas'  res  j  siml'tu  in  |  meo'  cor-  |  de  vor'so.  Plant. 
At  ta'men  ub!  |  fides'  ?  si  |  roges',  nil  |  pendent'  hlc.  Ter. 

NOTE.— The  Molossus, ,  may  take  the  place  of  the  Bacchms,  as  in  multds  res, 

and  the  long  syllables  may  be  resolved,  as  in  at  tamen  ull. 

2.  CRETIC  1  METRES,  generally  Tetrameter  or  Dimeter : 

Nam'  doll  |  non'  doll  j  sunt' ,  nisi  as-  |  tu'  colas.  Plaut. 
Ut'  malls  |  gau'deant  |  at'que  ex  in-  |  com'modis.  Ter. 

NOTE  1.— Plautus  also  uses  Anapaestic  metres,  especially  Dimeters  : 

Quod  ago'  subit,  ad-  |  secue'  sequitur.  Plaut. 
This  measure  admits  Dactyls  and  Spondees,  rarely  Proceleusmatics,  ^  ^  ^  w 

NOTE  2.— For  Trochaic  and  Iambic  Metres  in  Comedy,  see  620,  note  2;  622,  3. 
NOTE  8. — For  Special  Peculiarities  in  the  prosody  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  see 
576,  notes  2  and  3;  578,  note  2;  580,  notes  2,  3,  and  4.2 

NOTE  4.— On  the  free  use  of  Synaeresis  in  Comedy,  see  608,  III.,  note  3. 

1  See  603,  note  1;  597,  note  1. 

2  For  a  full  account  of  the  metres  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  see  editions  of  those  poets ; 
as  the  edition  of  Plautus  by  Eitschl,  of  a  part  of  Plautus  by  Harrington,  the  edition  of 
Terence  by  Wagner,  and  the  edition  by  Crowell ;  also  Spengel,  '  Plautus  :  Kritik,  Pro- 
sodie,  Metrik.1 

IT 


S70  APPENDIX. 


APPENDIX. 


I.  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

634.  A  Figure  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  form,  construction,  or 
signification  of  words. 

NOTE.— Deviations  from  the  ordinary  forms  are  called  Figures  of  Etymology  ;  from 
the  ordinary  constructions,  Figures  of  Syntax ;  and  from  the  ordinary  significations, 
Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

635.  The  principal  FIGURES  OF  ETYMOLOGY  are — 

1.  APHAERESIS,  the  taking  of  one  or  more  letters  from  -the  beginning  ol  a  word :  ">8t 
for  est. 

2.  SYNCOPE,  the  taking  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  middle  of  a  word :  dixe  for 
dixisse. 

3.  APOCOPE,  the  taking  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  end  of  a  word :  tun1  for  tune. 

4.  EPENTHESIS,  the  insertion  of  one  or  more  letters  in  a  word :  Alcumena  for  Ale 
mena,  dtttuum  for  dUtum. 

5.  METATHESIS,  the  transposition  of  letters :  pistris  forpristis. 

6.  See  also  FIGTJBES  OF  PKOSODY,  608. 

636.  The  principal  FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX  are — 

I.  ELLIPSIS,  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  of  a  sentence : 
Habitabat  ad  Jovis  (sc.  templum),  Tie  dioelt  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter.  Liv. 

Hie  illius  anna  (fuerunf),  hie  currus  fuit,  here  were  her  awns,  here  her  chariot. 

Verg. 

1.  ASYNDETON  is  an  ellipsis  of  a  conjunction : l 

YenL,  vidi,  vici,  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered.  Suet.    See  also  554, 1.,  6,  with  note  1. 

2.  For  the  ELLIPSIS  of  f acid,  died,  ord,  see  368, 3,  note  1 ;  523, 1.,  note ;  569,  II.,  3. 
8.  For  APOSIOPESIS  or  EETICENTIA,  see  637,  XI.,  3. 

II.  BRACHYLOGY,  a  concise  and  abridged  form  of  expression : 

Nostri  Graece  nesciunt  nee  Graeci  Latlne,2  our  people  do  not  know  Greek 
and  the  Greeks  (do)  not  (know)  Latin.  Cic.  Natura  hominis  beluis  antece- 
dit,2  the  nature  of  man  surpasses  (that  of)  the  brutes.  Cic. 

1.  Zeugma  employs  a  word  in  two  or  more  connections,  though  strictly 
applicable  only  in  one : 

Pacem  an  bellum  gerens,3  whether  at  peace  or  waging  war.  Sail.  Duces 
pictasque  exure  carinas,  slay  the  leaders  and  burn  the  painted  ships.  Verg. 

1  Asyndeton  is  sometimes  distinguished  according  to  its  use,  as  Adversative,  Ex- 
plicative, Enumerative,  etc. ;  see  Nagelsbach, '  Stilistik,'  §  200. 

2  Here  nesciunt  suggests  sciunt,  and  beluis  in  the  second  example  is  equivalent  to 
beludrum  naturae, 

3  Gerens,  applicable  only  to  bellum,  is  here  used  also  ofpdcem. 


FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX.  371 

2.  Syllepsis  is  the  use  of  an  adjective  with  two  or  more  nouns,  or  of  a  verb 
with  two  or  more  subjects : 

Pater  et  mater  mortul  sunt,  father  and  mother  are  dead  (4=39).  Ter.  Tu 
et  Tullia  valetis,  you  and  Tullia  are  well.  Cic. 

III.  PLEONASM  is  a  full,  redundant,  or  emphatic  form  of  expression : 1 
Erant  itinera  duo,  quibus  itineribus  exlre  possent,  there  were  two  ways  ly 

which  ways  they  might  depart.   Caes.    Eurusque  Notusque  ruunt,  loth  Eurus 

and  Notus  rush  forth.  Verg. 

1.  POLYSYNDETON  is  a  pleonasm  in  the  use  of  conjunctions,  as  in  the  last  example. 

2.  HENDIADYS  is  the  use  of  two  nouns  with  a  conjunction,  instead  of  a  noun  with  an 
adjective  or  genitive : 

Armis  virisque  for  virls  armatis,  with  armed  men.  Tac. 

3.  ANAPHORA  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  beginning  of  successive  clauses: 

.Me  cuncta  Italia,  me  universa  clvitas  consulem  declaravit,  me  all  Italy,  me  the 
whole  state  declared  consul.  Cic. 

4.  EPIPHORA  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  end  of  successive  clauses : 
Laelius  navus  erat,  doctus  erat,  Laettus  was  diligent,  was  learned.  Cic. 

5.  EPIZETTXIS  is  the  emphatic  repetition  of  a  word : 

Fuit,  fait  quondam  in  hao  re  piiblica  virtus,  there  was,  there  was  formerly  virtue 
in  this  republic.  Cic. 

6.  Monosyllabic  prepositions  are  often  repeated  before  successive  nouns,  regularly  so 
with  et—et: 

Et  in  bellicis  et  in  cmlibus  omciis,  both  in  military  and  in  ciml  offices.  Cic. 
NOTE.— Other  prepositions  are  sometimes  repeated. 

7.  A  demonstrative  pronoun  or  adverb— id,  hoc,  illud,  sic,  ita—is  often  used  some- 
what redundantly  to  represent  a  subsequent  clause.    So  also  quid,  in  quid  censes  with 
a  clause : 

Illud  te  oro  ut  dlligens  sis,  Task  you  (that  thing)  to  be  (that  you  bo)  diligent.  Cic. 

8.  Pronouns  are  often  redundant  with  quidem  ;  see  450,  4,  note  2. 

9.  Pleonasm  often  occurs  with  licet : 

Ut  liceat  permittitur  =  licet,  it  is  lawful  (is  permitted  that  it  is,  etc.).  Cic. 

10.  Circumlocutions  with  res,  genus,  modus,  and  ratio  are  common. 

IY.  ENALLAGE  is  the  substitution  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another,  or 
of  one  grammatical  form  for  another : 

Populus  late  rex  (for  regnans},  a  people  of  extensive  sway  (ruling  extensive- 
ly). Verg.  Serus  (sero)  in  caelum  redeas,  may  you  return  late  to  heaven.  Hor. 
Vina  cadis  (vlnis  cados)  onerare,  to  Jill  the  flasks  with  wine.  Verg.  Cursus 
just!  (Justus}  amnis,  the  regular  course  of  the  river.  Liv. 

1.  ANTIMERIA  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another,  as  in  the  first  two  examples. 

2.  HYPALLAQE  is  the  use  of  one  case  for  another,  as  in  the  last  two  examples. 

8.  PROLEPSIS  or  ANTICIPATION,  is  the  application  of  an  epithet  in  anticipation  of  the 
action  of  the  verb : 

Scuta  latentia  condunt,  they  conceal  their  hidden  shields.  Yerg.    See  also  440,  2. 

4.  SYNESIS  is  a  construction  according  to  sense,  without  regard  to  grammatical  forms. 
For  examples,  see  438,  6;  445,  5;  461. 

1  Pleonasm,  a  full  or  emphatic  expression,  differs  widely  from  Tautology,  which  is 
&  needless  repetition  of  the  same  meaning  in  different  words. 


372  APPENDIX. 

5.  ATTBACTION  unites  in  construction  words  not  united  in  sense : 

Animal  quern  (for  quod)  vocamus  hominem,  the  animal  w7iich  ice  call  man.  Cic, 
See  also  445,  4,  8,  and  9. 

6.  ANACOLUTHON  is  a  want  of  harmony  in  the  construction  of  the  different  parts  of  a 
sentence : 

SI,  ut  dicunt,  omnes  Graios  esse  (Grail  sunf),  if,  as  they  say,  all  are  Greeks.  Cic. 

Y.  HYPERBATON  is  a  transposition  of  words  or  clauses : 

Praeter  arma  nih.il  erat  super  (supererat),  nothing  remained,  except  their 

arms.   Nep.    Valet  atque  vlvit  (vlvit  atque  valet),  Tie  is  alive  and  well.   Ter. 

Subeunt  luco,  fluviumque  relinquunt,  they  enter  the  grove  and  leave  the  river. 

Verg. 

1.  ANASTBOPHE  is  the  transposition  of  words  only,  as  in  the  first  example. 

2.  HYSTERON  PKOTEEO^  is  a  transposition  of  clauses,  as  in  the  last  example. 

3.  THESIS  is  the  separation  of  the  parts  of  a  compound  word  : 

Nee  prius  respexi  quam  vcnimus,  nor  did  I  look  back  before  (sooner  than)  we  ar- 
rived. Verg. 

4.  CHIASMUS  is  an  inverted  arrangement  of  words  in  contrasted  groups;  see  563. 

637.  FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC  comprise  several  varieties.  The  following 
are  the  most  important : J 

I.  A  SIMILE  is  a  direct  comparison : 

Mantis  effugit  imago  par  levibus  ventis  volucrlque  simillima  somno,  the 
image,  like  the  swift  winds,  and  very  Uke  a  fleeting  dream,  escaped  my  hands. 
Verg. 

II.  METAPHOR  is  an  implied  comparison,  and  assigns  to  one  object  the- 
appropriate  name,  epithet,  or  action  of  another : 

Kel  publicae  vulmis  (for  damnum),  the  wound  of  the  republic.  Cic.  Nau- 
fragium  fortunae,  the  wreck  of  fortune.  Cic.  Aures  veritatl  clausae  sunt,  his 
ears  are  closed  against  the  truth.  Cic. 

1.  Allegory  is  an  extended  metaphor,  or  a  series  of  metaphors.  For  an 
example,  see  Horace,  I.,  Ode  14 :  O  navis  .  .  .  occupa  portum,  etc.2 

in.  METONYMY  is  the  use  of  one  name  for  another  naturally  suggested 
by  it: 

Aequo  Marte  (for  proelio}  piignatuin  est,  they  fought  in  an  equal  contest. 
Liv.  Furit  Vulcanus  (ignis} ,  the  fire  rages.  Verg.  Proximus  ardet  Ucalegon 
(domus  Ucalegontis),  Ucalegon  burns  next.  Verg. 

NOTE.— By  this  figure  the  cause  is  often  put  for  the  effect,  and  the  effect  for  the  cause ; 
the  property  for  the  possessor,  the  place  or  age  for  the  people,  the  sign  for  the  thing  sig- 
nified, the  material  for  the  manufactured  article,  etc. :  Mars  for  bellum,  Vulcanus  for 
ignis,  Bacchus  for  vinwn,  nobilitas  for  ndbiles,  Graecia  for  Graecl,  laurea  for  vic- 
toria, argentum  for  vasa  argentea,  etc. 

1  On  Figurative  Language,  see  the  eighth  and  ninth  books  of  Quintilian,  *  Be  Insti- 
tutione  Oratoria,'  and  the  fourth  book  of '  Auctor  ad  Herennium '  in  Cicero's  works. 

3  In  this  beautiful  allegory  the  poet  represents  the,  vessel  of  state  as  having  been 
well-nigh  wrecked  in  the  storms  of  the  civil  war,  but  as  now  approaching  the  haven  o! 
peace. 


FIGURES  OF  RHETORIC.  373 

1.  Autonomasia  designates  a  person  by  some  title  or  office,  as  eversor 
Karthaginis  for  Scipift,  Romanae  'eloquentiae  prlnceps  for  Cicero. 

IV.  SYNECDOCHE  is  the  use  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  of  the  whole  for 
a  part ;  of  the  special  for  the  general,  or  of  the  general  for  the  special : 

Static  male  fida  carmls  (navibus),  a  station  unsafe  for  ships.  Verg. 

V.  IRONY  is  the  use  of  a  word  for  its  opposite : 

Legatos  bonus  (for  malus)  imperator  vester  non  admlsit,  your  good  com 
mander  did  not  admit  the  ambassadors.   Liv.    See  also  507,  3,  note  1. 
NOTE.— Metaphor,  metonymy,  synecdoche,  and  irony  are  often  called  Tropes. 

VI.  CLIMAX  (ladder)  is  a  steady  ascent  or  advance  in  interest : 
Africans  industria  virtutem,  virtus  gloriam,  gloria  aemulas  comparavit, 

industry  procured  virtue  for  Africanus,  virtue  glory,  glory  rivals.   Cic. 

VII.  HYPERBOLE  is  an  exaggeration : 

Ventls  et  fulminis  ocior  alls,  swifter  than  the  ivinds  and  the  wings  of  the 
lightning.  Verg. 

VIII.  LITOTES  denies  something  instead  of  affirming  the  opposite : 
Non  opus  est  =  perniciosum  est,  it  is  not  necessary.   Cic. 

IX.  PERSONIFICATION  or  PROSOPOPEIA  represents  inanimate  objects  as 
living  beings : 

Cujus  latus  ille  mucrO  petebat  ?  whose  side  did  that  weapon  seek  ?  Cic.1 

X.  APOSTROPHE  is  an  address  to  inanimate  objects  or  to  absent  persons : 
Vos,  Albani  tumuli,  vos  imploro,  I  implore  you,  ye  Alban  hills.   Cic. 

XI.  The  following  figures  deserve  brief  mention : 

1.  ALLITERATION,  a  repetition  of  the  same  letter  at  the  beginning  of 
successive  words : 

Vl  victa  vis  eat,  force  was  conquered  by  force.   Cic.    Fortissimi  virl  virtus, 
the  virtue  of  a  most  brave  man.   Cic. 

2.  APOPHASIS  or  PARALEIPSIS,  a  pretended  omission : 9 

Non  dico  te  pecunias  accepisse ;  raplnas  tuas  omnes  omitto,  I  do  not  state 
that  you  accepted  money  ;  I  omit  all  your  acts  of  rapine.   Cic. 

3.  APOSIOPESIS  or  RETICENTIA,  an  ellipsis  which  for  rhetorical  effect 
leaves  the  sentence  unfinished : 

Quos  ego — sed  motos  praestat  componere  fLuctus,  whom  I— but  it  is  better 
to  calm  the  troubled  waves.  Verg. 

4.  EUPHEMISM,  the  use  of  mild  or  agreeable  language  on  unpleasant 
subjects : 

Si  quid  mih!  humanitua  accidisset,  if  anything  common  to  the  lot  of  man 
should  befall  me — i.  e.,  if  1  should  die.   Cic. 

1  See  also  First  Oration  against  Catiline,  VII. :  Quae  tecum  .  .  .  tacita  loquitur,  etc. 

2  Sometimes  called  occupdtio. 


574  APPENDIX. 

6.  ONOMATOPOEIA,  the  use  of  a  word  in  imitation  of  a  special  sound : 
Boves  mugiunt,  the  cattle  low.  Liv.    Murmurat  unda,  the  wave  murmurs. 
Verg. 

6.  OXYMORON,  an  apparent  contradiction : 

Absentes  adsunt  et  egentes  abundant,  the  absent  are  present  and  the  needy 
have  an  abundance.  Cic. 

7.  PARONOMASIA  or  AGNOMINATION,  a  play  upon  words : 

Hunc  avium  dulcedo  ducit  ad  avium,1  the  attraction  of  birds  leads  him  to 
the  pathless  wood*.  Cic. 

II.  LATIN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

638.  The  Latin  derives  its  name  from  the  Latlnl  or  Latins,  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Latium  in  Italy.  It  belongs  to  the  Indo-European  or  Aryan 
family,  which  embraces  seven  groups  of  tongues  known  as  the  Indian  or 
Sanskrit,  the  Persian  or  Zend,  the  Greek,  the  Italian,  the  Celtic,  the  Slavonic, 
and  the  Teutonic  or  Germanic.  The  Latin  is  the  leading  member  of  the 
Italian  group,  which  also  embraces  the  Umbrian  and  the  Oscan.  All  these  lan- 
guages have  one  common  system  of  inflection,  and  in  various  respects  strik- 
ingly resemble  each  other.  They  are  the  descendants  of  one  common  speech 
spoken  by  a  single  race  of  men  untold  centuries  before  the  dawn  of  history. 

NOTE  1.— In  illustration  of  the  relationship  between  the  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
English,  compare  the  following  paradigms  of  declension  :  a 

SINGULAR. 
SANSKRIT.  GBEEK.  LATIN.  ENGLISH. 


Stem. 

pad, 

7TOS, 

ped, 

foot. 

Nom., 
Voc. 

[pad, 

xrous, 

pes, 

foot. 

Gen. 

padas, 

woSoy, 

pedis, 

of  a  foot. 

Dat. 

pade, 

iro5i, 

pedi, 

to  a  foot. 

Ace. 
AU. 

padam, 
padas, 

irdfia,3 

pedem,      < 
pede,4 

foot, 
from  a  foot. 

Ins. 

pada, 

with  a  foot. 

LOG. 

padi, 

in  a  foot. 

PLURAL. 

Voc.  *' 

j-  padas, 

TTdfie*, 

pedes, 

feet. 

Gen. 

padam, 

TToSwi', 

pedum, 

of  feet. 

Dat. 

padbhyas, 

TTOO't, 

pedibus, 

to  feet. 

Ace. 

padas, 

TrdSa? 

pedes, 

feet. 

AU. 

padbhyas, 

pedibus, 

from  feet. 

Ins. 

padbhis, 

with  feet. 

Loc. 

patsu, 

in  feet. 

1  The  pun,  lost  in  English,  is  in  the  use  of  dvium,  a  remote  or  pathless  place,  with 
amwrn,)  of  birds. 

2  See  also  p.  71,  foot-note  2 ;  p.  83,  foot-note  8. 

3  The  Ablative,  the  Instrumental,  and  the  Locative  are  lost  in  Greek,  but  their 
places  are  supplied  by  the  Genitive  and  the  Dative. 

4  The  final  consonant,  probably  t,  of  the  original  Ablative  ending  is  changed  to  8  in 
padas  and  dropped  in  pede.    The  Instrumental  and  the  Locative  are  lost  in  Latin, 
but  their  places  are  supplied  by  the  Ablative, 


LATIN  LANGUAGE.  375 

NOTE  2. — In  these  paradigms  observe  that  the  initial  p  in  pad,  iroS,  ped,  becomes  f 
In  foo^  and  that  the  final  d  becomes  t.  This  change  is  in  accordance  with  Grimm's 
Law  of  the  Rotation  of  Mutes  in  the  Germanic  languages.  This  law  is  as  follows : 

The  Primitive  Mutes,  which  generally  remain  unchanged  in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  are  changed  in  passing  into  the  Germanic  languages,  to  which  the  English  belongs. 
Thus  the  SONANTS,  of,  #,  in  passing  into  English,  become  SURDS,  £,  k;  the  SURDS,  c,  &, 
p,  t,  become  ASPIRATES,  h,  wht  f  (for  ph),  th ;  the  ASPIRATES,  M,1  dh,1  gh*  become 
SONANTS,  &,  d,  gr.a 

NOTE  3.— The  relationship  between  the  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  may  be 
abundantly  illustrated  by  comparing  the  forms  of  familiar  words  in  these  different  lan- 
guages.3 

639.  The  earliest  specimens  of  Latin  whose  date  can  be  determined  are 
found  in  ancient  inscriptions,  and  belong  to  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury before  Christ  or  to  the  beginning  of  the  third.  Fragments,  however, 
of  laws,  hymns,  and  sacred  formulas,  doubtless  of  an  earlier  though  uncer- 
tain date,  have  been  preserved  in  Cato,  Livy,  Cicero,  and  other  Latin  writers.4 

1  Bh  generally  is  represented  in  Latin  by  b  or  /;  dh  by  d  or  /,  and  gh  by  g.  h,  or  /; 
see  Schleicher,  pp.  244-251. 

2  For  an  account  of  Grimm's  Law,  with  its  applications,  see  Max  Miiller,  '  Science 
of  Language,'  Second  Series,  Lecture  V.;  Papillon,  pp.  85-91. 

3  Compare  the  following: 

SANSKRIT.  GREEK.  LATIN.  ENGLISH. 

dvau,  Svo,  duo,  two. 

trayas,  rpeis,  tres,  three. 

s,at,  €&  sex,  six. 

sapta,  errra,  septem,  seven, 

daca,  Se/ta,  decem,  ten. 

dyis,  £fc,  bis,  twice, 

tris,  Tpi's,  ter,  thrice. 

rnatii,  M'T^Pi  mater,  mother, 

pita,  n-anjp,  pater,  father, 

naus,  raus,  navis,  navy, 

vak,  o\f/,  vox,  voice. 

4  Such  are  the  ancient  forms  of  prayer  found  in  Cato  and  other  writers,  the  fragments 
of  Salian  hymns,  of  the  formulas  of  the  Fetial  priests,  and  of  ancient  laws,  especially  of 
the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.    The  following  inscription  on  the  tomb  of  the  Scipios 
shows  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  early  Latin : 

HONO  OINO  .  PL01RVME  .  CON8ENTIONT  .  R 
DVONORO  .  OPTVMO  .  FVISE  .  VIRO 
LVCIOM  .  8CIPIONE  .  FILI08  .  BARBATI 
CONSOL  .  CENSOR  .  AIDILIS  .  HIC  .  FVET  .  A 
HEC  .  CEPIT  .  CORSICA  .  ALERIAQVE  .  VRBE 
DEDET  .  TEMPESTATEBU8  .  AIDE  .  HERETO 

In  ordinary  Latin : 

Hunc  unum  plurimi  consentiunt  Romai 

bonorum  optimum  fuisse  virum  mrdrum^ 

Lucium  Sclpionem.    Filius  Barbati 

consul,  censor,  aedilis  hie  fuit  &pud  vos. 

Hlc  cepit  Corsicam  Aleriamque  urbem  pugnandd  ; 

dedit  tempestatibus  aedem  merito  votam. 

gee  Wordsworth,  'Early  Latin,'  Part  II.;  F.  P.  Allen,  'Early  Latin';  Eoby,  I.,  p.  418. 


376  APPENDIX. 

640.  The  history  of  Roman  literature  begins  with  Livius  Andronicus, 
a  writer  of  p*ays>  and  the  earliest  Roman  author  known  to  us.     It  em- 
braces  about  eight  centuries,  from  250  B.  c.  to  550  A.  D.,  and  has  been 
divided  by  Dr.  Freund  into  three  principal  periods.     These  periods,  with 
their  principal  authors,  are  as  follows : 

I.  The  ANTE-CLASSICAL  PERIOD,  from  250  to  81  B.  c. : 

Ennius,  Plautus,  Terence,  Lucretius. 

II.  The  CLASSICAL  PERIOD,  embracing — 

1.  The  Golden  Age,  from  81  B.  c.  to  14  A.  D.  : 

Cicero,  Nepos,  Horace,  Tibullus, 

Caesar,  Livy,  Ovid,  Propertius. 

Sallust,  Vergil,  Catullus, 

2.  The  Silver  Age,  from  14  to  180  A.  D.  : 

Phaedrus,  The  Plinies,          Quintilian,          Persius, 

Velleius,  Tacitus,  Suetonius,  Lucan, 

The  Senecas,          Curtius,  Juvenal,  Martial. 

III.  The  POST-CLASSICAL  PERIOD,  embracing — 

1.  The  Brazen  Age,  from  180  to  476  A.  D.  : 

Justin,  Eutropius,  Lactantius,          Claudian, 

Victor,  Macrobius,  Ausonius,  Terentian. 

2.  The  Iron  Age,  from  476  to  550  A.  D.  : 

Boethius,  Cassiodorus,          Justinian,  Priscian. 

III.  THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR. 

641 .  The  Julian  Calendar  of  the  Romans  is  the  basis  of  our  own,  and 
is  identical  with  it  in  the  number  of  months  in  the  year  and  in  the  num- 
ber of  days  in  the  months. 

642.  PECULIARITIES. — The  Roman  calendar  has  the  following  pecu- 
liarities : 

I.  The  days  were  not  numbered  from  the  beginning  of  the  month,  as  with 
us,  but  from  three  different  points  in  the  month : 

1.  The  Calends,  the  first  of  each  month. 

2.  The  Nones,  the  fifth — but  the  seventh  in  March,  May,  July,  and 
October. 

3.  The  Ides,  the  thirteenth — but  the  fifteenth  in  March,  May,  July,  and 
October. 

II.  From  these  three  points  the  days  were  numbered,  not  forward,  but 
backward. 

NOTE. — Hence,  after  the  Ides  of  each  month,  the  days  were  numbered  from  the 
Calends  of  the  following  month. 

III.  In  numbering  backward  from  each  of  these  points,  the  day  before 


ROMAN  CALENDAR. 


377 


flach  was  denoted  by  prldie  Kalendds,  Nonas,  etc. ;  the  second  before  each  by 
die  tertio  (not  secundo)  ante  Kalendds,  etc.;  the  third,  by  die  quarto,  etc.;  and 
so  on  through  the  month. 

1.  This  peculiarity  in  the  use  of  the  numerals,  designating  the  second  day  before  the 
Calends,  etc.,  as  the  third,  and  the  third  as  the  fourth,  etc.,  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
Calends,  etc.,  were  themselves  counted  as  the  first.    Thus  prldie  Kalendds  becomes 
the  second  before  the  Calends,  die  tertio  ante  Kalendds,  the  third,  etc. 

2.  In  dates  the  name  of  the  month  is  added  in  the  form  of  an  adjective  in  agreement 
with  Kalendds,  Nonas,  etc.,  as,  die  quarto  ante  Nonas  Jdnudrids,  often  shortened  to 
quarto  ante  Nonas  Jan.,  or  IV.  ante  Nonas  Jan.,  or  without  ante,  as,  IV.  Nonas  Jan., 
the  second  of  January. 

3.  Ante  diem,  is  common,  instead  of  die — ante,  as,  ante  diem  quartum  Nonas  Jdn. 
for  die  quarto  ante  Nonas  Jdn. 

4.  The  expressions  ante  diem  Kal.,  etc.,  prldie  Kal.,  etc.,  are  often  used  as  inde- 
clinable nouns  with  a  preposition,  as,  ex  ante  diem  V.  Idiis  Oct.,  from  the  llth  of  Oct. 
Liv.    Ad  prldie  Nonas  Maids,  till  the  6th  of  May.  Cic. 

643.  CALENDAR  FOB  THE  YEAR. 


Days  of 
the 

Month. 

March,  May,  July, 
October. 

January,  August, 
December. 

April,  June, 

September,  November. 

February. 

1 

KALENDI8.1 

KALENPIS. 

KALENPIS. 

KALEND?S. 

2 

VI.        Nonas.* 

IV.        Nonas. 

IV.        Nonas. 

IV.         Nonas. 

8 

y. 

III. 

III. 

III. 

4 

IV.             " 

Prldie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

5 

in.         « 

NONlB. 

NONis. 

NONIS. 

6 

Prldie  Nonas. 

VIII.       Idus. 

VIII.      Idus. 

VIII.      Idus.     • 

7 

NONI8. 

VII. 

VII. 

VII. 

8 

VIII.      Idus. 

VI. 

VI.             " 

VI. 

9 

VII. 

V.               " 

V.              " 

V. 

10 

VI. 

IV.             " 

IV.             " 

IV.             " 

11 

V                " 

III.             " 

III.          " 

III.             " 

12 

IV. 

Pridie  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

18 
14 

III. 

Prldie  Idus. 

IDIBTJS. 
XIX.    Kalend.  2 

IDIBUS. 
XVIII.  Kalend.2 

IDIBUS. 
XVI.    Kalend.2 

15 

IDIBUS. 

XVIII.       " 

XVII.        " 

XV.            " 

16 

XVII.  Kalend.2 

XVII.        " 

XVI.          " 

XIV.          " 

17 

XVI. 

XVI. 

XV. 

XIII. 

18 

XV.            " 

XV.           " 

XIV. 

XII.            " 

19 

XIV. 

XIV. 

XIII.          « 

XL             " 

20 

XIII.          " 

XIII. 

XII. 

X.               " 

21 

XII. 

XII.           " 

XI.             " 

IX.             " 

22 

XI. 

XI. 

X.               " 

VIII. 

23 

X.               '« 

X.               " 

IX.             " 

VII.           " 

24 

IX.             " 

IX.              " 

VIII.          " 

VI.             " 

25 

VIII. 

VIII.          " 

VII.           " 

V.  (VI.)3  " 

26 

VII.           " 

VII.           " 

VI.             " 

IV.  (V.)     u 

27 

VI.             " 

VI.             " 

V.               " 

III.  (IV.)  " 

28 

V.               " 

V.              " 

IV.             " 

Prid.Kal.(III.Kal.) 

29 

IV.             " 

IV. 

III. 

(Prid.  Kal.) 

30 

III.             « 

III. 

Prldie  Kalend. 

31 

Prldie  Kalend. 

Pridie  Kalend. 

1  To  the  Calends,  Nones,  etc.,  the  name  of  the  month  must  of  course  be  added.    Be- 
fore Nonas,  Idus,  etc.,  ante  is  sometimes  used  and  sometimes  omitted  (643,  III.,  2). 

2  The  Calends  of  the  following  month  are  of  course  meant ;  the  16th  of  March,  for 
instance,  is  XVII.  Kalendds  Aprlle*. 

3  The  inclosed  forms  apply  to  leap-year. 


378  APPENDIX. 

(344.  ENGLISH  AND  LATIN  DATES. — The  table  (643)  will  furnish  the 
learner  with  the  English  expression  for  any  Latin  date,  or  the  Latin  ex- 
pression for  any  English  date ;  but  it  may  be  convenient  also  to  have  the 
following  rule : 

I.  If  the  day  is  numbered  from  the  Nones  or  Ides,  subtract  the  number 
diminished  by  one  from  the  number  of  the  day  on  which  the  Nones  or  Ides 
fall: 

VIII.  ante  Idus  Jan.  =  13  —  (8  —  1)  =  13  —  7  =  6th  of  January. 

II.  If  the  day  is  numbered  from  the  Calends  of  the  following  month,  sub- 
tract the  number  diminished  by  two  from  the  number  of  days  in  the  current 
month  : 

XVIII.  ante  Kal.  Feb.  =  31  —  (18  —  2)  =  31  - 16  =  15th  of  January. 

NOTE.— In  leap-year  the  24th  and  the  25th  February  are  both  called  the  sixth  before 
the  Calends  of  March,  VI.  Kal.  Mart.  The  days  before  the  24th  are  numbered  as  if 
the  month  contained  only  28  days,  but  the  days  after  the  25th  are  numbered  regularly 
for  a  month  of  29  days :  V.,  IV.,  III.  Kal.  Mart.,  and  prldie  Kal.  Mart. 

645.  The  Roman  day,  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  and  the  night,  from 
sunset  to  sunrise,  were  each  divided  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  into  twelve 
hours. 

1.  The  night  was  also  divided  into  four  watches  of  three  Eoman  hours 
each. 

2.  The  hour,  being  uniformly  yia  of  the  day  or  of  the  night,  of  course  varied 
in  length  with  the  length  of  the  day  or  night  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

IV.  ROMAN  MONEY,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MEASURES. 

646.  The  principal  Roman  coins  were  the  as,  of  copper ;  the  sestertius, 
quinarius,  denarius,  of  silver ;  and  the  aureus,  of  gold.     Their  value  in  the 
classical  period  may  be  approximately  given  as  follows : 

As 1  to  2  cents. 

Sestertius 5 

Qulnarius 10 

Denarius 20 

Aureus  =  25  denarii $5.00 

1.  The  as,  the  unit  of  the  Roman  currency,  contained  originally  a  pound 
of  copper,  but  it  was  diminished  from  time  to  tune  till  at  last  it  contained 
only  y24  of  a  pound. 

NOTE. — An  as,  whatever  its  weight,  was  divided  into  twelve  unciae. 

2.  The  sestertius  contained  originally  2%  asses,  the  qulndrius  5,  and  the 
denarius  10  ;  but  as  the  as  depreciated  in  value,  the  number  of  asses  in  these 
coins  was  increased. 

3.  The  as  is  also  used  as  a  general  unit  of  measure.    Thus— 

1)  In  Weight,  the  as  is  a  pound,  and  the  uncia  an  ounce. 

2)  In  Measure,  the  as  is  a  foot  or  a  jngerum  (648,  IV.  and  V.),  and  the 
uncia  is  Via  of  a  foot  or  of  a  jflgerum. 

3)  In  Interest,  the  as  is  the  unit  of  interest— i.  e.,  1  per  cent,  a  month, 


MONEY,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MEASURES.  379 

or  12  per  cent,  a  year  ;  the  uncia  is  Via  per  cent,  a  month,  or  1  per  cent,  a 
year  ;  and  the  semis  is  6/12  per  cent,  a  month,  or  6  per  cent,  a  year,  etc. 

4)  In  Inheritance,  the  as  is  the  whole  estate,  and  the  uncia  Via  of  it  :  heres 
ex  dsse,  heir  of  the  whole  estate  ;  heres  ex  dodrante,  heir  of  Via- 

647.  COMPUTATION  OF  MONEY.  —  In  all  sums  of  money  the  common  unit 
of  computation  was  the  sestertius,  also  called  nummus  ;  but  four  special 
points  deserve  notice  : 

I.  In  all  sums  of  money,  the  units,  tens,  and  hundreds  are  denoted  by 
sestertii  with  the  proper  cardinals  : 

Quinque  sestertii,  5  sesterces  ;  vlgintl  sestertii,  20  sesterces  /  ducentl  ses- 
tertii, 200  sesterces. 

II.  One  thousand  sesterces  are  denoted  by  mille  sestertii,  or  mille  sester- 


III. In  sums  less  than  1,000,000  sesterces,  the  thousands  are  denoted  either 
(1)  by  milia  sestertium  (gen.  plur.),  or  (2)  by  sestertia  : 

Duo  milia  sestertium,  or  duo  sestertia,  2,000  sesterces  ;  qulnque  milia  ses- 
tertium, or  qulnque  sestertia,  5,000  sesterces. 

NOTE.—  With  sestertia  the  distributives  are  generally  used,  as,  Una  sestertia. 

IV.  In  sums  containing  one  or  more  millions  of  sesterces,  sestertium  with 
the  value  of  100,000  sesterces  is  used  with  the  proper  numeral  adverb,  decies, 
vicies,  etc.    Thus  — 

Decies  sestertium,  1,000,000  (10x100,000)  sesterces;  vicies  sestertium, 
2,000,000  (20  x  100,000)  sesterces. 

1.  SESTEETITTM.—  In  the  examples  under  IV.,  sestertium  is  treated  as  a  neuter  noun 
in  the  singular,  though  originally  it  was  probably  the  genitive  plural  of  sestertius,  and  the 
full  expression  for  1,000,000  sesterces  was  Decies  centena  milia  sestertium.    Centena 
milia  was  afterward  generally  omitted,  and  finally  sestertium  lost  its  force  as  a  genitive 
plural,  and  became  a  neuter  noun  in  the  singular,  capable  of  declension. 

2.  Sometimes  sestertium  is  omitted,  leaving  only  the  numeral  adverb:  as,  decies, 
1,000,000  sesterces. 

3.  The  sign  HS  is  often  used  for  sestertii,  and  sometimes  for  sestertia,  or  sestertium  : 
Decem  HS  =  10  sesterces  (HS  =  sestertii).    Dena  HS  =  10,000  sesterces  (HS  =  ses- 

tertia).   Decies  HS  =  1,000,000  sesterces  (HS  =  sestertium). 

648.  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.—  The  following  weights  and  measures 
deserve  mention  : 

I.  The  Libra,  also  called  As  or  Pondo,  equal  to  about  11)^  ounces  avoir- 
dupois, is  the  basis  of  Roman  weights. 

I.  The  Libra,  like  the  as  in  money,  is  divided  into  12  parts. 

II.  The  Modius,  equal  to  about  a  peck,  is  the  basis  of  dry  measure. 

III.  The  Amphora,  containing  a  Roman  cubic  foot,  equivalent  to  about 
seven  gallons,  is  a  convenient  basis  of  liquid  measure. 

IV.  The  Roman  Pesor  Foot,  equivalent  to  about  11.6  inches,  is  the  basis 
of  long  measure. 

.—Cubitus  is  equivalent  to  1^  Eoman  feet,  passus  to  5,  and  stadium  to  625. 


380 


APPENDIX. 


V.  The  Jugerum,  containing  28,800  Koman  square  feet,  equivalent  to 
about  six  tenths  of  an  acre,  is  the  basis  of  square  measure. 

V.  ROMAN  NAMES. 

649.  A  Roman  citizen  usually  had  three  names.  The  first,  or  prae- 
nomen,  designated  the  individual ;  the  second,  or  nomen,  the  gens  or  tribe  ; 
and  the  third,  or  cognomen,  the  family.  Thus,  Publius  Cornelius  Scipio 
was  Publius  of  the  Scipio  family  of  the  Cornelian  gens,  and  Gains  Julius 
Caesar  was  Gaius  of  the  Caesar  family  of  the  Julian  gens. 


1.  The  praenomen  was  often  abbreviated : 


S.  (Sex.)  =  Sextus. 

Ser.  =  Servius. 

Sp.  =  Spurius. 

T.  =  Titus, 

Ti.  (Tib.)  =  Tiberius. 


A.  =  Aulus.  M.  =  Marcus. 

Ap.  =  Appius.  M'.  =  Manius. 

C.  =  Gaius.  Mam.  =  Mamercus. 
Cn.  =  Gnaeus.  N.  =  Numerius. 

D.  =  Decimus.  P.  =  Publius. 

L.  =  Lucius.  I  Q.  (Qu.)  =  Qulntus. 

2.  Sometimes  an  agnomen  or  surname  was  added.    Thus  Seipid  received 
the  surname  Africdnus  from  his  victories  in  Africa :  Pablius  Cornelius  Scipio 
Africdnus. 

3.  An  adopted  son  took  (1)  the  full  name  of  his  adoptive  father,  and  (2) 
an  agnomen  in  anus  formed  from  the  name  of  his  own  gens.    Thus  Octdvius 
when  adopted  by  Caesar  became  Gaius  Julius  Caesar  Octdvidnus.    After- 
ward the  title  of  Augustus  was  conferred  upon  him,  making  his  full  name 
Gaius  Julius  Caesar  Octdvidnus  Augustus. 

4.  Women  were  generally  known  by  the  name  of  their  gens.    Thus  the 
daughter  of  Julius  Caesar  was  simply  Julia  ;  of  Tullius  Cicerd,  Tullia  ;  of 
Cornelius  Scipio,  Cornelia.    Three  daughters  in  any  family  of  the  Cornelian 
gens  would  be  known  as  Cornelia,  Cornelia  Secunda  or  Minor,  and  .Cornelia 
Tertia. 

650.  Various  abbreviations  occur  in  classical  authors : 


A.  D.  =  ante  diem. 

Aed.  =  aedilis. 

A.  U.  C.  =  anno  urbis 

conditae. 
Cos.  =  consul. 
Coss.  =  consults. 
D.  =  divus. 
D.  D.  =  dono  dedit. 
Des.  =  designatus. 
D.  M.  =  dils  manibus. 
D.  S.  =  de  suo. 
D.    S.   P.  P.  =  de    sua 

pecunia  posuit. 
Eq.  Rom.  =  eques   Ro- 

manus. 
F.  =  fllius. 


F.   C.  =  faciendum  cu- 

ravit. 
Id.  =  Idas 

Imp.  =  imperator. 

K.  (Kal.)=Kalendae. 

Leg.  =  legatus. 

Non.  =  Nonae. 

O.  M.  =  optimus  max- 
im us. 

P.  C.  =  patres  conscrlp- 
tl. 

Pont.  Max.  =  pontifex 
maximus. 

P.  R.  =  populus  Ro- 
manus. 

Pr.  =  praetor. 


Praef.  =  praefectus. 

Proc.  =  proconsul. 

Q.  B.  F.  F.  Q.  S.  =  quod 
bonum,  felix,  faus- 
tumque  sit. 

Quir.  =  Quirltes. 

Resp.  =  res  publica. 

S.  =  senatus. 

S.  C.  =  senatus  consul- 
turn. 

S.  B.  P.  =  salutem  dicit 
plurimam. 

S.  P.  Q.  R.  =  senatus 
populusque  Romanus. 

Tr.  PI.  =  tribunus  pie- 
bis. 


APPENDIX.  381 

VI.  VOWELS  BEFORE  TWO  CONSONANTS  OR  A  DOUBLE  CONSONANT. 

651.  On  the  natural  quantity1  of  vowels  before  two  consonants,  a 
double  consonant,  or  the  letter  j,  observe — 

I.  That  vowels  are  long  before  ns  and  nf ;  generally  also  before  gn 
and  j : 

conscius,  consensus,  constans,  construe,  consul,  insanus,  inscribe,  Inse- 
quor,  instans,  Insula,  amans,  monens,  regens,  audiens ;  confero,  conficio,  con- 
fluo,  infaraia,  Infellx,  infensus,  infero,  Infrequens ;  abiegnus,  benignus,  mag- 
nus,  mallgnus,  regnum,  signum,  stagnum ;  ciijus,  ejus,  hujus,  major,  pejor. 

II.  That  all  vowels  which  represent  diphthongs,  or  are  the  result  of 
contraction,  are  long : 

exlstimo,  amasse,  audlssem,  introrsum,2  introrsus,  prorsus,  quorsum,  rur- 
sum,  sursum,  malle,  mallem,  nolle,  nollein,  nullus,  ullus,2  Mars,2  Martis. 

III.  That  the  long  vowelb  of  Primitives  are  retained  in  Derivatives — 

1.  In  asco,  esc5,  and  Isc5  in  Inceptives  from  verbs  of  the  first,  sec- 
ond, or  fourth  conjugation : 

gelasco,  labasco,  acesco,  aresco,  floresco,  latesco,  patesco,  silesco,  viresco, 
edormlsco,  obdormlsco,  seised,  consclsco. 

2.  In  large  classes  of  words  of  which  the  following  are  examples : 

cras-tinus,  diic-tilis,  fas-tus,  ne-fas-tus,  flos-culus,  jus-tus,  in-jus-tus,  jus- 
tissimus,  jus-titia,  matr-imonium,  os-culum,  os-culor,  os-tium,  paliis-ter,  ras- 
trum,  ros-trum,  rus-ticus,  sallc-tum. 

IV.  That  vowels  are  long  in  the  ending  of  the  Nominative  Singular  of 
nouns  and  adjectives  with  long  increments  in  the  Genitive : 

frux,  lex,  lux,  pax,  plebs,  rex,  thorax,  vox. 

V.  That  in  the  second  person  of  the  Perfect  Active  i  is  long  in  the 
penult : 

amavlsti,  amavlstis,  monuisti,  monulstis,  rexlsti,  rexistis,  audlvlstl,  audl- 
vlstis. 

1  It  is  often  difficult,  and  sometimes  absolutely  impossible,  to  determine  the  natural 
quantity  of  vowels  before  two  consonants,  but  the  subject  has  of  late  been  somewhat 
carefully  investigated  by  Eitschl,  Schmitz,  and  others.  An  attempt  has  been  made  in  this 
article  to  collect  the  most  important  results  of  these  labors.  The  chief  sources  of  in- 
formation upon  this  subject  are  (1)  ancient  inscriptions,  (2)  Greek  transcriptions  of 
Latin  words,  (3)  the  testimony  of  ancient  grammarians,  (4)  the  comic  poets,  and  (5) 
etymology.  See  Schraitz,  'Beitrage';  Eitschl,  *Kheinisches  Museum,1  vol.  xxxi.,  pp. 
481—492;  Scholl, 'Acta  Societatis  Philologae  Lipsiensis,'  vol.  vi.,  pp.  71—215;  Muller, 
1  Orthographiae  et  Prosodiae  Latmae  Summarium » ;  Foerster,  *  Eheinisches  Museum,' 
xxxiii.,  pp.  291-299. 

a  Introrsum  from  intr  over  sum  ;  tillus  from  unulus;  M&re  from  Mayors. 


382  APPENDIX. 

NOTE.— According  to  Priscian,1  e  is  long  before  ajl,  oclsti^  etc.,  in  the  Perfect  Active : 
rexi,  remit,  texerunt,  illeximm. 

VI.  That  long  vowels  occur  in  the  following  words  and  in  their  deriva- 
tives : 


actiO 

maximus 

rectus 

actito 

mllle 

Sallustius 

actor 

narro 

sescentl 

actus 

Norba 

Sestius 

axilla 

nuntius 

structor 

classis 

ordo 

structura 

crlspus 

ornamentum 

structus 

damma 

orno 

taxillus 

emptus 

pastor 

tossillae 

festus 

paxillus 

tristis 

Festus 

Poffifl 

unctio 

Juppiter 

Poplllius 

unctito 

lectito 

prlscus 

unctor 

lector 

proplnquus 

unctura 

lectus 

proxiinus 

unctus 

llctor 

querella 

Vestinus 

llttera 

quinque 

vestis 

luella 

quintus 

vexillum 

Marcus 

rectiO 

villa 

maxilla 

rector 

Vipsanius 

VII.  That  vowels  are  probably  short  before  nt  and  nd : 2 

amant,  amantis,  monent,  monentis,  prudentis,  prudentia,  amandus,  mon- 
endus,  regendus. 

VIII.  That  the  short  vowels  of  Primitives  are  retained  in  Derivatives : 
inter-nus,  juven-tus,  llber-tas,  munus-culum,  patr-imonium,  pauper-culus, 

super-bus,  vir-tus. 

IX.  That  vowels  are  generally  short  in  the  ending  of  the  Nominative 
Singular  of  nouns  and  adjectives  with  short  increments  in  the  Genitive : 

adeps,  calix,  dux,  grex,  hiems,  judex,  nex,  mix. 
NOTE.— Towels  before  final  ns  are  of  course  excepted. 

X.  That  the  first  vowel  in  the  following  endings  is  short : 

1.  emus,  ernius,  erninus ;  urnus,  urnius,  urninus : 

maternus,  paternus,  Llternius,  Lltermnus,  taciturnus,  Saturnius,  Saturni- 
nus. 

2.  ustus,  estus,  ester,  estis,  esticus,  estinus,  estris: 

robustus,  venustus,  vetustus,  honestus,  modestus,  campester,  Silvester, 
agrestis,  caelestis,  domesticus,  clandestlnus,  terrestris. 

XI.  That  all  vowels  are  to  be  treated  as  short  unless  there  are  good 
reasons  for  believing  them  to  be  long. 

i  Bee  Book  IX.,  23. 

8  See  p.  87,  foot-note  2;  p.  61,  foot-note  2. 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


383 


INDEX    OF    YEEBS. 


THIS  Index  contains  an  alphabetical  list,  not  only  of  all  the  simple 
verbs  in  common  use  which  involve  any  important  irregularities,  but  also 
of  such  compounds  as  seem  to  require  special  mention.  In  regard  to 
compounds  of  prepositions  (344)  observe — 

1.  That  the  elements — preposition  and  verb — often  appear  in  the  com- 
pound in  a  changed  form ;  see  344,  4-6. 

2.  That  the  stem-vowel  is  often  changed  in  the  Perfect  and  Supine ; 
see  221. 

Al-licio,  ere,  lexl,  lectum,  217,  2;  p. 

130,  foot-note  8. 

Alo,  ere,  alui,  alitum,  altum,  273. 
Amb-igo;  see  agd,  271,  2. 
Amb-io,  295,  N.  2. 
Amicio,  ire,  ui  (xi),  turn,  285. 
Amo,  205. 

Amplector,  I,  amplexus  sum,  283. 
Ango,  ere,  anxi,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
An-nuo,  ere,  5,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Ante-capio,  p.  128,  foot-note  14. 
Apage,  def.,  297,  III. 
Aperio,  ire,  ul,  turn,  285. 
Apiscor,  1,  aptus  sum,  283. 
Ap-pareo;  see  pared,  262;  301. 
Ap-peto ;  see  peto,  278. 
Ap-plico;  KQQ  plied,  258. 
Ap-pono;  SQQpdnd,  273. 
Arcesso,  ere,  Ivl,  Itum,  278. 
Ardeo,  ere,  arsi,  arsum,  265. 
Aresco,  ere,  arui,  — ,  281. 
Arguo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 
Ar-ripio ;  see  rapid,  274. 
A-scendo ;  see  scandd,  272,  3. 
A-sperg6 ;  see  spargd,  270. 
A-spicio,  ere,  spexl,  spectum,  217,  2. 
As-sentior,  irl,  sensus  sum,  288,  2. 
As-sideo ;  see  sedeo^  267,  2. 
At-texo ;  see  texo,  274. 
At-tineo ;  see  teneo,  263. 
At-tingo ;  see  tango,  271. 
At-tollo ;  see  tollo,  271. 
Audeo,  ere,  ausus  sum,  268,  3. 
Audio,  211. 
Au-fero,  292,  2. 
Augeo,  ere,  auxi,  auctum,  264. 
Ave,  def.  ;  see  have,  297,  III. 


Ab-do,1  ere,  did!,  ditum,  271. 

Ab-icio;  seejacio,  271,  2. 

Ab-igo  ;  see  ago,  271,  2. 

Aboleo,  ere,  evl,  itum,  p.  124,  foot- 
note 2. 

Abolesco,  ere,  olevi,  olitum,  277. 

Ab-ripio ;  see  rapid,  274. 

Abs-condo ;  see  abdo,  271. 

Ab-sum,  290,  I. 

Ac-cendo,  ere,  i,  censum,  272,  3. 

Ac-cido  ;  see  cado,  272;  301. 

Ac-cinp  ;  see  cano,  271. 

Ac-cipio  ;  see  capio,  271,  2. 

Ac-col5 ;  see  cold,  274. 

Ac-cumbo,  ere,  cubul,  cubitum,  273. 

Acesco,  ere,  acul,  — ,  281. 

Ac-qulro  ;  see  guaerd,  278. 

Acuo,  ere,  ul,  utum,  279. 

Ad-do  ;  see  abdd,  271 ;  255, 1.,  4. 

Ad-far! ,  p.  142,  foot-note  5. 

Ad-fero,  292,  2. 

Ad-imo ;  see  emd,  271,  2. 

Ad-ipiscor,  1,  adeptus  sum,  283,  foot- 
note 1. 

Ad-olesco ;  see  abolesed,  277. 

Ad-orior ;  see  orior,  288,  2. 

Ad-spicio ;  see  aspicid,  217,  2. 

Ad-sto,  259,  N.  2. 

Ad-sum,  290, 1. 

Ag-gredior ;  see  gradior,  283. 

A-gnosco ;  see  nosed,  278. 

Ago,  ere,  egl,  actum,  271,  2. 

Afo,  def.,  297,  II. 

Albeo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 

Algeo,  ere,  alsl,  — ,  265. 


1  Final  o  in  verbs  is  sometimes  shortened,  though  rarely  in  the  best  writers. 


384 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


B 

Balbutio,  Ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Batuo,  ere,  i,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Bibo,  ere,  i,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Blandior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 


Cado,  ere,  cecidl,  casum,  272. 
Caecutio,  ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Caedo,  ere,  cecidl,  caesum,  272. 
Calesco,  ere,  calul,  — ,  281. 
Calveo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Candeo,  ere,  ul,  262,  N.  1. 
Cando,  p.  129,  foot-note  14. 
Caneo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Cano,  ere,  cecini,  cantum,  271. 
Capesso,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278. 
Capio,  ere,  cepl,  captum,  217 ;  218  ; 

271,  2. 

Carpo,  ere,  si,  turn,  269. 
Caveo,  ere;  cavi,  cautum,  266. 
Cedo,  ere,  cessi,  cessum,  270. 
Cedo,  def.i  297,  III. 
Cello,  oos. ;  see  excelld,  273,  N. 
Ceno,  257,  N.  2. 
Censeo,  ere,  ui,  censuni,  263. 
Cerno,  ere,  crevi,  ere  turn,  277. 
Cieo,  ere,  civl,  citum,  265,  N. 
Cingo,  ere,  cinxl,  cinctum,  269. 
Cio,  265,  N. 

Cireum-ago,  p.  128,  foot-note  13. 
Circum-dp,  255,  I.,  4;  259,  N.  1. 
Circum-sisto ;  see  sisto,  271. 
Circum-sto,  255,  I.,  4. 
Clango,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Claudo,  ere,  clausl,  clausum,  270. 
Claudo,  ere,  —  (to  be  lame),  272,  N.  2. 
Co-arguo ;  see  argud,  279. 
Co-emo,  p.  128,  foot-note  15. 
Coepl,  ^'.,297. 
Co-gnosco ;  see  nosed,  278. 
Cogo,  ere,  coegl,  coactura;  see  ago, 

271,  2. 

Col-lido ;  see  laedo,  270. 
Col-ligo;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
Col-luceo ;  see  luceo,  265. 
Colo,  ere,  ul,  cultum,  274. 
Com-edo,  291,  N.  3. 
Com-miniscor,  I,  commentus  sum,  283. 
Com-moveo ;  see  moved,  266. 
Com-parco  (perco) ;  see  pared,  272. 
Comperio,  ire,  peri,  pertum,  287,  N. 
Compesco,  ere,  pescul,  — ,  273,  N. 
Com-pingo ;  see  pango,  271. 
Com-plector,  1,  plexus  sum. 
Com-pleo,  ere,  evl,  etum:  261. 
Com-primo ;  see  premo,  270. 
Com-pungo,   ere,    punxl,   punctum ; 
o,  271. 


Con-cido  ;  see  cado,  272. 
Con-cldo  ;  see  caedo,  272. 
Con-cino  ;  see  cano,  271. 
Con-cludo  ;  see  claudo,  270. 
Con-cupisco,    ere,  cuplvl,    cupltum, 

281,  N. 

Con-cutio  ;  see  ouatio,  270. 
Con-do  ;  see  abao,  271. 
Con-fercio  ;  see/«m<?,  286. 
Con-fero,  292,  2. 
Con-ficio  ;  see/aao,  271,  2. 
Con-fit,  def.,  297,  111. 
Con-fiteor;  seefateor,  268,  2. 
Con-fringo  ;  see/ra;^,  271,  2. 
Con-gruo,  ere,  1,  —  ,  272,  N.  1. 
Coniveo,    ere,    nivl,    nixi,  —  ,  265; 

267,  3. 
Conor,  260. 

Con-sero  ;  see  sero,  277,  N. 
Con-sisto  ;  see  sisto,  271. 
Con-spjcio,  ere,  spexi,  spectum,217,2. 
Con-stituo  ;  see  statud,  279. 
Con-sto,  301  ;  see  sto,  259. 
Consulo,  ere,  ul,  turn,  274. 
Con-temno  ;  see  temno,  272,  N.  2. 
Con-texo  ;  see  texd,  274. 
Con-tingo  ;  see  tango,  271  ;  301. 
Convalesce,  ere,valul,  valitum,  281,  N. 
Coquo,  ere,  coxl,  coctum. 
Cor-ripio  ;  see  rapio^  274. 
Cor-ruo  ;  see  rud,  279. 
Crebresco,  ere,  erebrul,  —  ,  282,  N. 
Credo,  ere,  credidl,  creditum,  271. 
Crepo,  are,  ul,  ituin,  258. 
Cresco,  ere,  crevi.  cretum,  277. 
Cubo,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 
Cudo,  ere,  cudi,  cusum,  272,  3. 
Cumbo  ;  see  accumbd,  273. 
Cupio,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  217,  1  ;  278. 
Curro,  ere,  cucurri,  cursum,  272. 


Debed,  262. 

De-cerpo,  ere,  si,  turn,  p.  127,  foot- 

note 2. 

Decet,  impers.,  299. 
De-do  ;  see  abdd,  271. 
De-fendo,  ere,  i,  fensum,  272,  3. 
De-fetiscor  ;  seefatiscor,  283. 
De-fit,  def.,  297,  111. 
Dego,  ere,  degi  ;  see  ago,  271,  2. 
Delecto,  impers.,  301. 
Deleo,  ere,  evi,  etum,  261. 
De-ligo  ;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
De-mico  ;  see  micd,  258. 
Demo,  ere,  dempsi,  demptum. 
De-pango  ;  see  pango,  271. 
De-primo;  seepremo,  270. 
Depso,  ere,  ui,  itum,  turn,  273. 
De-scendo  ;  see  scandd,  272,  8. 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


385 


De-silip ;  see  salio,  285. 
De-sipio ;  see  sapid,  278. 
De-sum,  290, 1. 
De-tendo  ;  see  tendo,  271. 
De-tineo ;  see  teneo,  263. 
De-vertor ;  see  verto,  272,  3. 
Dico,  ere,  dixl,  dictum,  238. 
Dif-fero,  292,  2. 
Di-gnosco ;  see  nosed,  278, 
Di-ligo ;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
Dl-mico  ;  see  micd,  258. 
Di-rigo,    ere,  rexi,  rectum,   p.   127, 

foot-note  2. 

Disco,  ere,  didicl,  — ,  271. 
Dis-crepo ;  see  crepo,  258. 
Dis-curnbo ;  see  accumbd,  273. 
Dis-pertior;  seepartior,  288. 
Dis-pliceo ;  see  placed,  262. 
Dis-sideo ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
Dl-stinguo ;  see  exstingud,  269. 
Di-sto,  259,  N.  2. 
Dltesco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Divide,  ere,  vlsl.  visum,  270. 
Do,  dare,  dedi,  datum,  259. 
Doceo,  ere,  ui,  doctum,  263. 
Dolet,  impers.,  301. 
Domo,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 
Dono,  259. 

Diico,  ere,  duxl,  ctum,  269 ;  238. 
Dulcesco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Duplico,  p.  123,  foot-note  6. 
Duresco,  ere,  cliirul,  — ,  282,  N. 

E 

Edo,  ere,  edi,  esura,  272,  2 ;  291. 
Ef-farl,  p.  142,  foot-note  5. 
Egeo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
E-licio,  ere,  ul,  itum,  273. 
E-ligo ;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
E-mico ;  see  micd,  258. 
Emineo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Emo,  ere,  emi,  einptum,  271,  2. 
E-neco,  are,  ui,  turn,  258. 
EO,  ire,  Ivi,  itum,  295. 
Esurio,  ire,  — ,  itum,  284,  N.  2. 
E-vado,  ere,  vasi,  vasum,  270. 
Ex-ardesco,  ere,  arsl,  arsum,  281,  N. 
Excello.  ere,  ui  (rare),  — ,  273,  N. 
Ex-cluao ;  see  claudo,  270. 
Ex-curro  ;  see  currd,  272. 
Ex-olesco  ;  see  abolesco,  277. 
Expergiscor,  i,  experrectus  sum,  283. 
Ex-perior,  iri,  pertus  sum,  288,  2. 
Ex-pleO  ;  see  compled,  261. 
Ex-plico  ;  see  phco,  258. 
Ex-plodo ;  seeplaudo,  270. 
Ex-stinguo,  ere,  stinxi,  stinctum,  269. 
Ex-sto,  259,  N.  2. 
Ex-tendo  ;  see  tendo,  271. 
Ex-tollo ;  see  tollo,  271. 


F 

Facesso,  ere,  IvT,  i,  itum,  278. 
Facio,  ere,  led,  factum,  217,  1 ;  238 ; 

271,  2. 

Fallo,  ere,  fefelli,  falsum,  272. 
Farcio,  ire,  farsi,  fartum,  farctum,  286. 
Fari,  def.,  297,  II. 
Fateor,  eri,  fassus  sum,  268,  2. 
Fatisco,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Fatiscor,  i,  — ,  283. 
Faveo,  ere,  favi,  fautum,  266. 
Fendo,  obs.  ;  see  defendo,  272,  3. 
Ferio,  ire,  — ,  284,  fr.  2. 
Fero,  ferre,  tuli,  latum,  292. 
Ferocio,  ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Ferveo,  ere,  fervi,  ferbul,  — ,  267,  3. 
Fido,  ere,  fisus  sum,  283. 
Figo,  ere,  fixi,  fixum,  270. 
Findo,  ere,  fidi,  fissum,  272,  3. 
Fingo,  ere,  finxi,  flctum. 
Finio,  2S4. 

Flo,  fieri,  factus  sum,  294. 
Flaveo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Flecto,  ere,  flexi,  flexum,  270. 
Fleo,  ere,  evi,  etum,  261. 
Floreo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Floresco,  ere,  florui,  — ,  281. 
Fluo,  ere,  fliixi,  fliixum,  279,  N. 
Fodio,  ere,  fodi,  fossum,  217, 1 ;  272,  2. 
Forem,  def.,  204,  2;  297,  III,  2. 
Foveo,  ere,  fovi,  fotum,  266. 
Frango,  ere,  fregi,  fractum,  271,  2. 
Fremo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 
Frendo,  ere,  — ,  fressum,  fresum,  270. 
Frico,  are,  ui,  atum,  turn,  258. 
Frigeo,  ere,  frixl  (rare),  — ,  265. 
Frondeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Fruor,  i,  friictus,  fruitus  sum,  283. 
Fugio,  ere,  ftigi,   fugitum,    217,    1; 

271,  2. 

Fulcio,  ire,  fulsi,  fultum,  286. 
Fulgeo,  ere,  fulsl,  — ,  265. 
Fulgo,  265,  foot-note  5. 
Fulminat,  impers.,  300. 
Fundo,  ere,  fudi,  fusum,  272,  2. 
Fungor,  1,  functus  sum,  283. 
Furo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  273,  tf. 

G 

Gannio,  ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Gaudeo,  ere,  gavisus  sum,  268,  3. 
Gemo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 
Gero,  ere,  gessi,  gestum,  269. 
Gigno,  ere,  genui,  genitum,  273. 
Gliscp,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Gradior,  i,  gressus  sum,  217,  3 ;  283< 
Grandesco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Grandinat,  impers.,  300. 
Gravesco,  ere,  — . 


386 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


H 

Habed,  262. 

Haereo,  ere,  haesl,  haesum,  265. 

Haurio,  ire,  hausl,  haustum,  haustu- 

rus,  hausiirus,  286. 
Have,  def.,  297,  III. 
Hebeo,  ire,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Hisco,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Honoro,  257. 

Horreo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Hortor,  232 ;  260. 
Humeo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 

I 

led,  ere,  Id,  ictmn,  272,  3. 
I-gnosco  -,  see  nosed,  278. 
Il-licio,  ere,  lex!,  lectum,  217,  2. 
Il-lido  ;  see  laedd,  270. 
Imbuo,  ere,  ul,  utum,  279. 
Immineo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Im-parcp  ;  see  pared,  272. 
Im-pertior;  see  partior,  288. 
Im-pingo;  seepango,  271. 
Im-pleo,  p.  124,  foot-note  1. 
In-cendo ;  see  accendd,  272,  3. 
Incesso,  ere,  Ivi,  1,  — ,  278. 
In-cido ;  see  cadd,  272. 
In-cldo ;  see  caedd,  272. 
In-crepo ;  see  crepd,  258. 
In-cresco ;  see  cresco,  277. 
In-cumbo ;  see  accumbd,  273. 
In-cutio  ;  see  quatid,  270. 
Ind-igeo,  ere,ul, — ;  see  eged,  262,  N.  1. 
Ind-ipiscor ;  see  apiscor,  283. 
In-do;  see  abdd,  271. 
Indulged,  ere,  dulsi,  dultuin,  264. 
Ineptio,  ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
In-fero,  292,  2. 
Infit,  dtf.i  297,  III. 
Ingruo,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
In-notesco,  ere,  notul,  282,  N. 
In-olesco :  see  aboUsco,  277. 
Inquam,  def.,  297,  II. 
In-sidep ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
In-spieio,  ere,  spexl,  spectum. 
In-sto ;  see  sto,  259. 
Intel-lego ;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
Interest,  impers.,  301. 
Inter-nosco ;  see  nosed,  278. 
In-veterasco,  ere,  ravl,  ratum,  281,  N. 
Irascor,  I,  — ,  283. 
Ir-ruo ;  see  ruo,  279. 


Jacio,  ere,  jecl,  jactum,  217, 1 ;  271,  2. 

Jubeo,  ere,  jussl,  jussum,  265. 

Juro,  257,  JN.  2. 

Juvenesco,  ere,  — . 

Juvo,  are,  juvl,  jutum?  259,  2;  301 . 


Labor,  I,  lapsus  sum,  283. 

Lacesso.  ere,  Ivl,  itum,  278. 

Lacio,  oos.  ;  see  allicio,  p.  130,  foot- 
note 8;  217,  2. 

Lacteo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

Laedo,  ere,  laesi,  laesum,  270. 

Lambo,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 

Langueo,  ere,  I,  — ,  267,  3. 

Largior,  in,  Itus  sum,  288. 

Lateo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

Lavo,  are,  lavl,  lautuin,  lotum,  lava« 
turn,  259,  2. 

Lego,  ere,  leg!,  lectum,  271,  2. 

Lenio,  284. 

Llbero,  257. 

Libet,  impers.,  299. 

Liceor,  eri,  itus  sum,  268. 

Licet,  impers.,  299. 

Lino,  ere,  llvi,  lev!,  litum,  278. 

Linquo,  ere,  llqul,  — ,  271,  2, 

Liqueo,  ere,  liqul  (licui),  267. 

Liquet,  impers.,  299. 

Liquor,  1,  — ,  283. 

Loquor,  I,  locutus  sum,  283. 

Luceo,  ere,  luxl,  — ,  265. 

Lucescit,  impers.,  300. 

Ltido,  ere,  lusl,  lusum,  270. 

Ltigeo,  ere,  luxl,  — ,  265. 

Luo,  ere,  lui,  — . 

M 

MacrescS,  ere,  macrui,  — .  282,  N. 
Madeo,  ere,  ul,  — .  262,  N.  1. 
Madesco,  ere,  maaul,  — . 
Maereo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Malo.  malle,  malul,  — ,  293. 
Manao,  ere,  1,  mansum,  272,  3. 
Maneo,  ere,  mans!,  mansum,  265. 
Maturesco,  ere,  maturul,  — ,  282,  N. 
Medeor,  en,  — ,  268,  2. 
MeminI,  def.,  297,  I. 
Mentior,  in,  itus  sum,  288. 
Mereor,  eri,  itus  sum,  268. 
Mergo,  ere,  mersi,  mersum,  270. 
Metior,  iri,  mensus  sum,  288,  2. 
Meto,  ere,  messui,  messum,  275. 
Metuo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Mico,  are,  ui,  — t  258. 
Miniscor,  obs.  ;  see  comminiscor,  283 
Minuo,  ere,  ul,  utum,  279. 
Miror,  260. 
Misceo,  ere,  miscui,  mistum,  mixtum, 

263. 

Misereor,  eri,  itus  or  tus  sum,  268,  2. 
Miseret,  impers.,  299. 
Mitesco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Mitto,  ere,  misi,  missum,  270. 
M0lior?  iri,  Itus  sum,  288, 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


387 


Mollesco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Mold,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 
Moneo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  207 ;  262. 
Morded,  ere,  momordi,  morsum,  267. 
Morior,  1  (iri),  mortuus  sum,  217,  3 ; 

283. 

Moved,  ere,  movf,  mdtum,  266. 
Mulceo,  ere,  mulsi,  mulsum,  265. 
Mulged.  ere,  mulsi,  mulsum,  265. 
Multiplied,  p.  123,  foot-note  0. 
Munio,  284. 

N 
Nanciscor,  I,  nactus  (nanctus)  sum, 

283. 

Nascor,  1,  natus  sum,  283. 
Need,  p.  123,  foot-note  4. 
Nectd,  ere,  nexl,  nexul,  nexum,  270 ; 

275. 
Neg-legd,  ere,  lexi,  lectum ;  see  lego, 

271,  2. 

Ned,  ere,  nevl,  netum,  261. 
Ne-qued,  Ire,  Ivl,  itum,  296. 
Nigrescd,  ere,  nigrul,  — . 
Ningd,  ere,  ninxl,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Nited,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Nltor,  1,  nlsus,  nlxus  sum,  283. 
Noced,  262. 

Ndld,  nolle,  ndlul,  — ,  293. 
Ndrmnd,  257. 

Ndsco,  ere,  ndvl,  ndtum,  278. 
Nubd,  ere,  nupsl,  nuptum,  269. 
Nupturid,  ire,  ivl,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 


Ob-do;  seeabdo,  271. 

Ob-dormlscd,  ere,  dormlvl,  dormltum, 

281,  N. 

Obllviscor,  i,  oblitus  sum,  283. 
Ob-mutescd,  ere,  mutul,  — ,  282,  N. 
Ob-sided ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
Ob-solesco ;  see  abolesco,  277. 
Ob-sto  •  see  sto,  259. 
Ob-surdesco,  ere,  surdul,  — . 
Ob-tineo ;  see  teneo,  263. 
Oc-cido ;  see  cado,  272. 
Oc-cido ;  see  caedo,  272. 
Oc-cinp;  see  cano}  271. 
Oc-cipio ;  see  capio,  271,  2. 
Occulo,  ere,  ui.  turn,  274. 
Odl,  def.,  297, 1. 
Of-fendo ;  see  defendo.  272,  3. 
Of-fero,  292,  2. 
Oleo,  ere.  ui, —,  262,  N.I. 
Olesco,  obsolete  ;  see  abol'escd,  277. 
Operio,  Ire,  ui,  turn,  285. 
Oportet,  impers.,  299. 
Op-perior,  In,  pertus,  peritus  sum, 

288,  2. 
Ordior,  in,  orsus  sum,  288,  2, 


Orior,  m,  ortus  sum,  288,  2. 
Os-tendo;  seQtendd,  271. 
Ovat,  def.,  297,  111. 


Paciscor,  i,  pactus  sum,  283. 
Paenitet,  impers.,  299. 
Palleo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Pando,  ere,  I,  pansum,  passum,  272,  3. 
Pango,  ere,  pepigi,  pactum,  271. 
Pango,  ere,  panxl,    pegi,   panctum, 

pactum,  271. 
Parco,  ere,  peperci  (parsi),  parsum, 

272. 

Pared,  ere,  ui,  itum,  262. 
Pario,  ere,  peperi,  partum,  217,  1 ; 

271. 

Partior,  In,  Itus  sum,  288. 
Parturio,  ire,  IvI,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Pasco,  ere,  pavi,  pastum,  276. 
Pateo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  JST.  1. 
Patior,  I,  passus  sum,  217,  3  ;  283. 
Paveo,  ere,  pavi,  — ,  266. 
Pecto,  ere,  pexl,  pexum,  270. 
Pel-licio,  ere,  lexi,  lectum,  217,  2. 
Pello,  ere,  pepuli,  pulsum,  272. 
Pendeo,  ere,  pependl,  pensum,  267. 
Pendo,  ere,  pependl,  pensum,  272. 
Per-ago,  p.  128,  foot-note  13. 
Per-cello ;  see  excelld,  273,  N. 
Per-censeo ;  see  censed,  263. 
Per-do,  ere,  didl,  ditum;   see  abdo, 

271. 
Pergo   (for  per-rigo),  ere,  perrexl, 

perrectum  ;  see  rego,  269. 
Per-petior;  SQQpatior,  283. 
Per-sto ;  see  std,  259. 
Per-taedet,  p.  143,  foot-not^e  8. 
Per-tineo ;  see  teneo,  263. 
Pessum-do,  259,  N.  1. 
Peto,  ere,  Ivl,  Itum,  278. 
Piget,  impers.,  299. 
PingO,  ere,  pinxl,  pictum. 
Plnso  (plso),  ere,  I,    ui,    plnsitum, 

plstum,  plnsum,  272,  3 ;  273. 
Placed,  262;  301. 
Plaudd,  ere,  si,  sum,  270. 
Plectd,  ere,  plexl,  plexum,  270. 
Plector ;  see  amplector,  283. 
Pled,  obsolete  ;  see  compled,  261. 
Plied,  are,  avi,  ui,  atum,  itum,  258. 
Plud,  ere,  i  or  pluvl,  — ,  272,  N.  1  ,• 

300. 

Polled,  ere,  — .  262,  N.  2. 
Polliceor,  eri,  itus  sum,  268. 
Pond,  ere,  posul,  positum,  273. 
Posed,  ere,  poposcl,  — ,  272. 
Pos-sided ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
Possum,  pdssev  potui,  — ,  290,  II, 
Potior,  iri,  Itus  sum,  288, 


388 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


Poto,  are,  avi,  atum,  urn,  257,  N.  1. 
Prae-cino  ;  see  cano,  271. 
Prae-curro  ;  see  curro,  272. 
Prae-sideo ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
Prae-sto  ;  see  sto,  259;  301. 
Prae-sum,  290,  I. 
Prae-vertor ;  see  verto,  272,  3. 
Prandeo,  ere,  i,  pransum,  267,  3. 
Prehendo,  ere,  I,  hensurn,  272,  3. 
PreinO,  ere,  press!,  pressum,  270. 
Prendo,  p.  130,  foot-note  1. 
Prod-igo;  see  ago,  271. 
Pro-do;  see  abdo,  271. 
Proficiscor,  I,  profectus  sum,  283. 
Pro-fiteor ;  sw/ateor,  268,  2. 
Promo,  ere,  proinpsi,  promptum. 
Pro-sum,  prodesse,  profui,  — ,  290, 

Pro-tendo ;  see  tendo,  271. 

Psallo,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 

Pudet,  impers.,  299. 

Puerasco,  ere,  — ,  282. 

Pugno,  257. 

Pungo,  ere,  pupugl,  punctum,  271. 

Pumo,  284. 

Q 

Quaero,  ere,  quaesivi,  quaesitum,  278. 

Quaeso,  def.,  297,  III. 

Quatio,  ere,  quassl,  quassum,  217,  1 ; 

270. 

Queo,  ire,  ivi,  itum,  296. 
Queror,  1,  questus  sum,  283. 
Quiesco,  ere,  quievi,  quietum,  277. 

R 

Radp,  ere,  rasi,  rasum,  270. 
Rapip,  ere,  rapul,  raptum,  217, 1 ;  274. 
Raucio,  ire,  rausi,  rausum,  287. 
Re-censeo ;  see  censed,  263. 
Re-cido ;  see  cado,  272. 
Re-c!do ;  see  caedo,  272. 
Re-criidesco,  ere,  crudui,  282,  N. 
Red-arguo  ;  see  arguo,  279. 
Red-do ;  see  abdo,  271 . 
Re-fello;  see/o^,  272. 
Re-fero ;  aeefero,  292. 
Refert,  impers.,  301. 
Rego,  ere,  rexl,  rectum,  209 ;  269. 
Re-linquo;  see  linquo,  271,  2. 
Re-miniscor,  I,  — ,  283. 
Renldeo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Reor,  ren,  ratus  sum,  268,  2. 
Re-pango;  seepango,  271. 
Re-pareo  ;  see  pared,  272. 
Re-periO,  ire,  perl,  pertum,  287,  N. 
Re-plico,  p.  123,  foot-note  6. 
Re-sideo  ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
Re-sipeo ;  see  sapid,  278. 


Re-sono ;  see  sono,  258. 
Re-spergo ;  see  spargo,  270. 
Re-spondeo,  255,  I.,  4. 
Re-tendo ;  see  tendo,  271. 
Re-tineo ;  see  teneo,  263. 
Re-vertor ;  see  verto,  272,  3. 
Re-vivisco,  ere,  vixl,  vlctum,  281, 
Rldeo,  ere,  risl,  risum,  265. 
Ringor,  1,  rictus  sum,  283. 
RodO,  ere,  rosi,  rosum,  270. 
Rorat,  impers.,  300. 
Rubeo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Rudo,  ere,  ivl,  itum,  278. 
Rumpo,  ere,  rupi,  ruptum,  271,  2. 
Ruo,  ere,  rui,  rutum,  ruiturus,  279. 


Saepio,  ire,  psi,  ptum,  286. 

Saglo,  ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 

Salio,  ire,  ui  (ii),  turn,  285. 

Salve,  def.,  297,  III. 

Sancio,  ire,  sanxi,  sancitum,  sanctum, 

286. 

Sapip,  ere,  ivi,  ui,  — ,  217, 1 ;  278. 
Sarcio,  ire,  sarsl,  sartum,  286. 
Sat-ago ;  see  ago,  271,  2. 
Satis-do,  259,  N.  1. 
Satis-facio,  p.  129,  foot-note  1. 
Scabo,  ere,  scabi,  — ,  271,  2. 
Scando,  ere,  dl,  scansum,  272,  3. 
Scindo,  ere,  scidi,  scissum,  272,  3. 
SciO,  284. 

Scisco,  ere,  scivi,  scitum,  281,  N. 
Seco,  are,  ul,  turn,  258. 
Sedeo,  ere,  sedi,  sessum,  267. 
Se-ligo  ;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
Sentip,  ire,  sens!,  sensum,  287. 
Sepelio,  ire,  ivi,  sepultum,  284. 
Sequor,  i,  secutus  sum,  283. 
Sero,  ere,  sevl,  satum,  277,  N. 
Sero,  ere,  serui,  sertum,  274. 
Sido,  ere,  i,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Sileo,  ere,  ui,  — ?  262,  N.  1. 
Sino,  ere,  sivi,  situm,  278. 
Sisto,  ere,  stiti,  statum,  271. 
Sitio,  ire,  ivi,  — ,  284. 
Soleo,  ere,  solitus  sum,  268,  3. 
Solvo,  ere,  solyi,  solutum,  272,  3. 
Sono,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 
Sorbeo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Sortior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 
Spargo,  ere,  sparsi,  sparsum,  270. 
Specio,  obs.,  217,  2. 
Sperno,  ere,  sprevi,  spretum,  277. 
Spero,  257. 

Splendeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Spondeo,    ere,    spopondi,    sponsum, 

267. 
Squaleo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 


INDEX  OF  VERBS. 


389 


Statue,  ere,  ul,  utum,  279. 
Sternd,  ere,  stravi,  stratum,  276. 
Sternud,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Stertd,  ere,  ul,  — ,  273,  N. 
Stingud,  ere,  — ,  p.  127,  foot-note  3. 
Std,  are,  stetl,  staturn,  259. 
Strepd,  ere,  ul,  itum,  273. 
Strtded,  ere,  strldi,  — ,  267,  3. 
Strldd,  ere,  1,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Strud,  ere,  struxi,  structum,  279,  N. 
Studed,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Stuped,  ere,  ui,  — ,  266. 
Suaded,  ere,  si,  sum.  265. 
Sub-do,  ere,  didl,  dituin:  see  abdo, 

271. 

Sub-igo ;  see  ago.  271,  2. 
Sub-silid ;  see  salio,  285. 
Suc-cedd ;  see  cedd,  270. 
Suc-cendd ;  see  accendd,  272,  3. 
Sue-censed ;  see  censed,  263. 
Suc-cidd ;  see  cado,  272. 
Suc-cldd ;  see  caedo,  272. 
Suc-crescd ;  see  cresco,  277. 
Suescd,  ere,  suevl,  suetum,  277. 
Suf-ferd,  292,  2. 
Suf-ficid ;  see  f acid,  271,  2. 
Suf-fodid ;  seefodio,  272,  2. 
Sug-gerd  ;  see  gero,  269. 
Sum,  esse,  fui,  — ,  203,  1 ;  204. 
Sumo,  ere,  psl,  ptum,  269. 
Superbid,  ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Super-jacid,  p.  129,  foot-note  2. 
Supplied,  258,  foot-note. 
Sup-pono;  see  pond,  273. 
Surgo   (for   sur-rigo),    ere,   surrexi, 

surrectum ;  see  regd,  269. 

T 

Taceo,  262. 
Taedet,  impers.,  299. 
Tango,  ere,  tetigl,  tactum,  271. 
Temno,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Tendo,  ere,  tetendl.  tenturn,  tensum, 

271. 

Teneo,  ere,  ui,  turn,  263. 
Tepesco,  ere,  tepul,  — ,  281. 
Tergeo,   ere,   tersi,  tersum,  265;  p. 

128,  foot-note  3. 
Tergo,  ere,  tersi,  tersum,  270. 
Tero,  ere,  trlvl,  trltum,  278. 
Texo,  ere,  ui,  turn,  274. 
Timed,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Tollo,  ere,  sustull,  sublatum,  271. 


Tondeo,  ere,  totondl,  tonsum,  267. 
Tono,  are,  ui  (itum),  258  ;  300. 
Torpeo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Torqued,  ere,  torsi,  tortum,  264. 
Torreo,  ere,  torrul,  tostum,  263. 
Tra-do ;  see  abdo,  271. 
Traho,  ere,  traxl,  tractum,  269. 
Tremo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  273,  N. 
Tribuo,  ere,  ul,  utum,  279. 
Trudo,  ere,  trusi,  trusum,  270. 
Tueor,  en,  tuitus,  tutus  sum,  268. 
Tundo,  ere,  tutudi,  timsum,  tusum, 

272. 

Turgeo,  ere,  tursl  (rare),  — ,  265. 
Tussio,  Ire,  284,  N.  2. 

U 

Ulciscor,  1,  ultus  sum,  283. 
Urgeo,  ere,  ursi,  — ,  265. 
Uro,  ere,  ussi,  ustum,  269. 
Utor,  I,  usus  sum,  283. 


Vado,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 

Vagio,  ire,  ivl,  — ,  284. 

Veno,  ere,  vexl,  ^7ectum,  269. 

Velio,  ere,  veil!  (vulsl),  vulsum,  272, 3, 

Vendo,  ere,  didl,  ditum,  271. 

Ven-eo,  295,  3. 

Venio,  Ire,  vem,  ventum,  287,  N. 

Venum-do,  259,  N.  1. 

Vereor,  erl,  veritus  sum,  268. 

Vergo,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 

Verro,  ere,  verrl,  versum,  272,  3. 

Verto,  ere,  ti,  sum,  272,  3. 

Vertor ;  see  verto,  272,  3. 

Vescor,  1,  — ,  283. 

Veterasco,  ere,  ravl,  — ,  276. 

Veto,  are,  ul,  itum,  258. 

Video,  ere,  vldl,  vlsum,  267,  2. 

Vilesco,  ere,  yllul,  — ,  282,  N. 

Vincio,  ire,  vinxi,  vinctum,  286. 

Vinco,  ere,  viol,  victum,  271,  2. 

Vireo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

Viresco,  ere,  virui, — ,  281. 

Vlso,  ere,  I,  um,  272,  3. 

Vivo.  ere.  vlxl,  victum,  269. 

Voco,  257. 

Void,  velle,  volui,  — ,  293. 

Volvo,  ere,  volvi,  volutum,  272,  3. 

Vomd,  ere,  ul,  itum,  273. 

Voved,  ere,  vdvi,  vdtum,  266. 


390 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


NOTE. — The  numbers  refer  to  articles*  not  to  pages.  Ace.  or  accus.  —  accusative; 
adjs.  =  adjectives ;  comp.  =  composition ;  compds.  =  compounds ;  conj.  =  conjugation; 
conjunc.  =  conjunctions ;  constr.  =  construction ;  ff.  —  and  the  following ;  gen.  or  genit. 
=  genitive;  gend.  =  gender;  ger.  =  gerund;  loc.  or  locat.  =  locative;  preps.  =  prepo- 
sitions ;  w.  =  with. 

It  has  not  been  thought  advisable  to  overload  this  index  with  such  separate  words  as 
may  be  readily  referred  to  classes,  or  to  general  rules,  or  even  with  such  exceptions  as 
may  be  readily  found  under  their  respective  heads.  Accordingly,  the  numerous  excep- 
tions in  Dec.  III.  are  not  inserted,  as  they  may  be  best  found  under  the  respective  end- 
ings, 69-115. 

w.  refert,  408,  I.,  2;  w.  verbs  of 
accusing,  etc.,  410,  II..  3 ;  w.  verbs 
of  condemning,  410,  III.  Abl.  of 
place,  412 ;  425  fit.  ;  separation, 
source,  cause,  413  ff.  Abl.  w.  com- 
parat.,417.  Instrumental  abl.,  418 
n.  Am.  of  accompaniment,  419  ; 
means,  420.  Abl.  in  special  con- 
structions, 421.  Abl.  of  price,  422 ; 
difference,  423;  specification,  424. 
Locative  abl.,  425  ff.  Abl.  of  tune, 
429.  Abl.  abs.,  431.  Abl.  w.  preps., 
432;  434;  435;  w.  compds.,  434, 
N.  1;  w.  adverbs,  437.  Infin.  in 
abl.  abs.,  439,  IV. 

Ablative  sin^.  in  d,  581,  III.,  1. 

-abrum,  d  in,  587,  I.,  1. 

Abs,  in  compds.,  344,  5.  Abs  w.  abl., 
434 ;  434,  JN.  2. 

Absente,  constr.,  438,  6,  N. 

Absolute  Abl.,  431. 

AbsoLvo,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Absque,  w.  abl.,  434. 

Abstineo,  constr.,  p.  211,  foot-note  5. 

Abstract  nouns,  39,  2,  2);  plur.,  130, 
2  and  3.  A  bstract  nouns  from  adjs. , 
325. 

Absum,  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Abest,  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

Abunde,  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3. 

-abundus,  d  in,  587,  III.,  2. 

-abus  for  -Is,  Decl.  I.,  49,  4. 

Ac,  310,  1 ;  554,  I. ;  meaning  as,  451, 
5;  than,  459,  2;  554, 1.,  2,  N._  AG 
si,  311,  2;  w.  subj.  m  conditions, 
513,  II. 

Acatalectic,  603,  N.  3. 

Accent,  rhythmic,  599. 

Accentuation,  17  ff. 


A,  a,  sound,  5 ;  10  ff.  A  final  short- 
ened, 21,  2.  -A  in  nom.,  accus.,  and 
voc.  pi.,  46,  2, 1).  ^-nouns,  Decl. 
I.,  48;  a- verbs,  205.  Nouns  in  -a, 
Decl.  III.,  69;  quant,  of  increm., 
585, 1.,  3;  gender,  111.  -^4,  adverbs 
in,  304, 1.,  3.  -A,  prepositions  in,  p. 
145,  foot-note  11 ;  p.  149,  foot-note 
2;  adverbs  in,  304,  II.,  2.  -A,  -a, 
suffix,  320.  -A,  derivatives  in,  326, 
2.  A,  changed  in  compds.,344,  4, 
N.  1.  A  or  d,  final,  580,  I. ;  580, 
III.,  N.  2;  581,  III. ;  in  increm.  of 
_decl.,585 ;  585, 1. ;  conj., 586;  586, 1. 

A,  ab,  abs,  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in 
compds.,  w.  dat.,  386,  2;  w.  abl., 
434,  N.  1.  Ab,  as  adverb,  379,  2, 
N.  A,  ab,  abs,  with  abl.,  434;  434, 
I. ;  of  agent,  388,  2 ;  415, 1.  A,  ab, 
abs,  434,  N.  2.  A,  ab,  abs^  desig- 
nating abode,  446,  N.  4.  A,  ab,  w. 
ger.,  p.  316,  foot-note  1. 

Abbreviations,  649,  1 ;  650. 

Abhinc,  denoting  interval,  p.  230, 
foot-note  2 ;  430,  N.  3. 

Abies,  es  in,  581,  VI.,  1. 

-abilis,  dm,  587,  111.,  2. 

ABLATIVE,  sing.,  original  ending  of, 
p.  20,  foot-note  5.  Abl.  sing,  in 
Decl.  III.,  62,  II.  ff. ;  63,  2;  64,  N. 
3  ;  in  adjs.,  154,  notes  1  and  2 ;  157, 
N.  Abl.  plur.,  Decl.  I.,  49,  4; 
Decl.  III.,  68,  5 ;  Decl.  IV.,  117. 

ABLATIVE,  translation  of,  48,  w.  foot- 
note 4.  Relations  denoted,  367. 
Syntax,  411  ff.  Abl.  w.  locat.,  363, 
4,  2);  w.  adjs.,  391,  II.,  3;  400,  3; 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


391 


it,  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

Accingo,  constr.,  377. 

Accommoddtus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot- 
note 1. 

Accompaniment,  abl.  of,  418  ff. 

ACCUSATIVE,  formation  of,  Decl.  II., 
51,  2,  6);  Decl.  III..  58,  1,  5) ;  62, 
II.  ff. ;  63,  1 ;  64,  N.  2 ;  67,  JN .  2  ; 
68,  2  and  6;  in  adjs.,  154,  N.  1; 
158,  1. 

ACCUSATIVE,  syntax  of,  370  ff.  Direct 
object,  371  ff. :  cognate,  371, 1.  and 
II. :  ace.  of  effect,  371,  I.,  2,  2) ;  w. 
verbal  adjs.  and  nouns,  371,  I.,  N. ; 
w.  compds.,  372.  Two  aces.,  373 
ff.  Predicate  ace.,  373,  1.  Poetic 
ace.,  377.  Adverbial  ace.,  378  ff. 
Ace.  of  specification,  378  ;  of  time 
and  space,  379 ;  of  limit,  380  ;  poet- 
ical dat.  for,  380,  4.  Ace.  in  exclani., 
381.  Ace.  for  gen.,  407.  Ace.  w. 
re/ert  and  interest,  408,  I.,  3;  w. 
preps.,  432;  433;  435;  w.  adverbs, 
437 ;  as  object,  w.  infin.,  534.  Ace. 
as  su  bj .  of  infin.  ,536.  Ace.  of  ger. , 
542,  III. 

Accusative,  Greek,  in  -as,  581,  V.,  2. 
Ace.  plur.  in  -us,  581,  IX.,  2. 

Accusing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 
II. ;  410,  II. 

Zcer,  decl.,  153. 

-aceus,  adjs.  in,  329;  d in,  587,  III.,1. 

Aries,  decl.,  122,  2. 

Acquitting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 11. 

-acrum,  a  in,  587  2 1.,  1. 

Action,  repeated,  in  temp,  clauses, 
518,  N.  2,  2);  518.1. 

Active  voice,  195.    Acti 
constr.,  464. 

-acundus,  d  in,  587,  III.,  2. 

Acus,  decl.,  117,  1 ;  gend.,  118. 

Ad  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in  compds. 
w.  two  aces.,  376;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Ad  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433,  I.  ;  after 
adjs.,  391, 11.,  1 ;  w.  refert  and  in- 
terest, 408,  I.,  3.  Ad  designating 
abode,  446,  N.  4.  Ad  w.  ger.,  p. 
315,  foot-note  5  ;  denoting  purpose, 
542,  III.,  N.  2. 

Adeo,  551,  N.  2;  554, 1.,  4. 

-ades,  a  in,  587,  II.,  1. 

Adfatim  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3 ; 
quant,  of  pen.,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 

Adficio^  w.  abl.,  420,  2. 

Aaflnis  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3 ; 
p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Aaipiscor  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3. 

Adjaceo  w.  ace.  or  dat.,  p.  202,  foot- 
note 1. 

ADJECTIVE,  146 ;  decl.  of,  147  ff. ;  ir- 


stivc  and  passive 


regular,  151 ;  159.  Compar.,  160 
ff.  Numerals,  172  ff. ;  decl.  of,  175 
ff.  Demon.,  186,  4.  Eel.,  187,  4. 
Inter.,  188,  4.  Derivation,  328  ff. 
Composition,  342.  W.  dat.,  391 ; 
400,  1 ;  w.  gen.,  397,  3 ;  399 :  of 
gerund,  p.  315,  foot-note  2.  Adj. 
for  gen.,  395,  N.  2.  Adj.  w.  abl., 
400,  3;  414,  III.;  416;  420;  421. 
Agreement,  438  ff.  Use,  440.  W. 
force  of  substantives,  441 ;  of  clauses, 
442  ;  of  adverbs,  443.  Compar., 
use,  444.  Adj.  separated  from 
noun.  565,  3  and  4.  Position  of 
modifiers  of  adj.,  566;  of  adj.  w. 
gen.,  565,  2. 

Admisceo  w.  dat.,  385,  3;  p.  201, 
foot-note  1. 

Admodum,  304, 1.,  2. 

Admoned,  constr.,  374,  2 ;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 1. 

Admonishing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of, 
409, 1. ;  410, 1. 

Adolesc'ens,  compar.,  168,  4. 

Adonic  verse,  628, 1. 

Adopted  son,  how  named,  649,  3. 

Ador,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  1. 

Adulor  w.  ace.  or  dat.,  p.  202,  foot- 
note 1. 

Adulter.,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

Adverbial  ace.,  378.  Adverbial  com- 
parison, 170. 

ADVEKBS,  303  ff.  Numeral  adverbs, 
181.  Compar.,  306.  Adverbs  w. 
nouns,  359,  N.  4;  443,  N.  4;  w. 
dat.,  392;  w.  gen..  397,4.  Adverbs 
as  preps.,  437.  Adverbs  for  adjs., 
443,  N.  3.  Use  of  adverbs,  551  ff. 
Position  of  modifiers  of  adverb,  568. 
Adverb  between  prep,  and  case,  569, 
II.,  3.  -£,  in  adverbs,  581,  IV.,  4. 
Adverb  redundant,  636,  III.,  7. 

Adversative  conjuncs.,  310,  3  ;  554, 
III.  Advers.  asyndeton,  p.  370, 
foot-note  1. 

Adversum,  adversus,7f.  ace.,  433. 

Ae,  sound,  6 ;  12 ;  changed  to  i,  344, 
4,  N.  2. 

Aeaes,  sing,  and  plur.,  132. 

Aeger,  decl.,  150. 

Aegr'efero,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  2. 

Aeneas .  decl.,  50. 

Aequdlis  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Aequifacere,  401,  N.  4. 

A'er,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  4. 

Aetds,  decl.,  58. 

Aether,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  4. 

-aeus,  adjs.  in.,  331. 

Age,  expression  of,  p.  222,  foot-note  4, 
Ages  of  Lat.  literature,  640, 


392 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Age,  interj.,  p.. 152,  foot-note  4. 

Agent,  abl.  of,  with  a  or  ab,  388,  2 ; 
415, 1.  Dat.  of,  388. 

Ajer,  decl.,  51. 

-aginta,  quant,  of  antepen.,  587, 
_  III.,  3. 

Agnomen,  649,  2  and  3. 

Agnomination,  637,  XI.,  7. 

Ago  ut,  498,  II.,  N.  2 ;  id  ago  w.  subj., 
p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

-ago,  nouns  in,  324,  N. ;  327,  4,  N. ; 
a  in,  587,  I.,  2. 

Agreeable,  dat.  w.  adjs.  signifying, 
391,  I. 

AGREEMENT,  of  Nouns,  362  ff.  Pred. 
noun,  362;  in  gend.,  362,  1.  Ap- 
positive,  363 ;  in  gend.,  363, 1.  Of 
adject.,  438  ff. ;  w.  clause,  438,  3; 
synesis,  438,  6;  w.  one  noun  for 
another,  438,  7;  w.  two  or  more 
nouns,  439;  w.  part,  gen.,  397,  3, 
N.  1.  Of  pronouns,  445 ;  w.  two 
or  more  antecedents,  445,  3  ;  attrac- 
tion, 445,  4;  synesis,  445,  5;  w. 
clause,  445,  7.  Of  verbs,  460  ff. ; 
synesis,  461  ;  w.  appos.  or  pred. 
noun,  462 ;  w.  compd.  subject,  463. 

M,  aha,  312. 

-al  for  ~ae,  _49,  2 ;  a  in,  577,  L,  1,  (1). 

Aid  for  agio.,  p.  19,  foot-note  8 ;  posi- 
tion, 569,  V. 

-ais  in  prop,  names,  a  in,  577,  5,  N. ; 
587,  L,  3. 

-al  final  shortened,  21,  2,  2).  Nouns 
m-al.  63;  65,  2;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  L,  1.  -Al  in  Plautus  for  -al, 
580,  III.,  N.  2. 

Alacer,  decl.,  153,  N.  1 ;  superlat. 
wanting,  168,  3. 

Albus,  without  compar.,  169,  4. 

Alcaic  verse,  604,  N.  1 ;  628,  VIII. 
and  IX. ;  619,  1.  Alcaic  stanza, 
631, 1. 

Alcmanian  stanza,  631,  XIX. ;   631, 

—      • 

2l'ec,  dlex,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III., 

3. 

-alia,  names  of  festivals  in,  136,  3. 
AlicuMj  alicunde,  305. 
Alienus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ; 

w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 
Aliqud,  ahquam,  aliquandd,  305. 
Aliquantus,  191. 
Aliqui,  use,  455, 1. 
Aliquis,  190,  2 ;  191 ;  use  of,  455. 
Aliqud,  305,  II. 
Aliquot,  191. 

Aliquotiens,  aliquovorsum,  305. 
-alis,  adjs.  in,  330 ;  compar.,  168,  2 ; 

169,  3.    J"in  -alts,  587,  L,  4. 


Aliud— nihil  aliud  nisi,  nihil  aliud 

quam,  555,  III.,  1. 
Alius,  decl.,  151;  w.  abl.,  417,  1,  N. 

4.    Use  of  «^ws,459.    Alius — aiium 

w.  pi.  verb,  461,  3. 
Allegory,  637,  II.,  1. 
Alliteration,  637,  XL,  1. 
Allobrox,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 
Alphabet,   2  ff.    Letters  of,  indecl., 

128,  1. 
Alter,  decl.,  151.     Alter  for  secundus, 

p.  66,  foot-note  4.    Use  of  alter,  459. 

Alter— alterum,  w.  pi.  verb,  461,  3. 
Alteruter,  decl.,  151,  N.  2. 
Alvus,  gend.,  53, 1. 
-am  in  adverbs,  304,  L,  3,  2). 
Amdns,  decl.,  157. 
Ambi,    anib,    insep.    prep.,    308;    in 

compels.,  344,  6. 
Ambo,  decl.,  175,  N.  2. 
Amicus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

/  in  amlcus,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 
AmniSj  decl.,  62?  IV. 
Amphiar aides,  I  m,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 
Amphora,  648,  III. 
Amplius  without  quam,  417,  1,  N.  2. 
Amyclides,  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 
An,  310,  2,  N.;  311,  8;  353.    An  = 

'whether  not,'  529,  II. ,  3,  N.  2 ; 

=  aut,  529,  II.,  3,  N.  3.     A  in  an, 

579,  3. 

-an,  suffix,  320, 1. 
-ana,  a  in,  587,  L,  5. 
Anacoluthon,  636,  IV.,  6. 
Anacrusis,  618,  N.  3. 
Analysis  of  verbal  endings,  241  ff. 
Anapaest,  597,  N.  1 ;  cyclic,  598, 1, 4). 
Anaphora,  636,  III.,  3. 
Anas,  as  in,  581,  V.,  1 ;  quant,  of  in- 
crem., 585,  L,  4,  (2). 
Anastrophe,  636,  V.,  1. 
Ancient  forms  of  pronouns,  184,  5 ;  of 

verbs,  240. 
Andle,  decl.,  136,  3. 
Androgeos,  decl.,  54. 
-aneus,  d  in,  587,  III.,  1. 
Anguis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 
AnMlitus,  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 
Animal,  decl.,  63. 

Animi,  constr.,  399,  III.,  1 ;  410.  V.,  2. 
Anib,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  2. 
Annon,  310,  2,  N. ;  353,  2,  N.  3. 
Answers,  352. 
-ant,  suffix,  320,  I. 
Ante  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in  compds. 

w.  dat.,  386.     Ante   w.  ace.,  433 ; 

433,    I.  ;    denoting   interval,    430. 

Ante  w.  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  5. 
Anted,  304,1V.,N.  2. 
Antecedent,  445,  N. ;  omitted,  445,  6. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


393 


Clause  as  anteced.,  445,  7.    Ante- 

ced.  attracted.  445,  9. 
Antecedo  w.  ace.  or  dat.,  p.  202,  foot- 
note 1. 

Ante-classical  period,  640,  I. 
Anteeo  in  synaeresis,  608,  III.,  N.  1 ; 

w.  ace.  or  dat..  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 
Antehdc,  304,  IV.,  N.  2. 
Antequam,  311, 1 ;  in  temp,  clauses, 

520. 
Anticipation,  prolepsis,  440,  2;  636, 

IV.,  3. 

Antlcus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 
Antimeria,  636,  IV.,  1. 
-anus,  adjs.  in,  330 ;  331  \  a  in,  587, 

1. ,  5. 

Anxiety,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  III. 
-aon  in  prop,  names,  a  in,  577,  5,  N. 
Apage,  inter).,  312,  4. 
Aphaeresis,  635,  1. 
Apis,  genit.  plun,  p.  36,  foot-note  3, 
Apocope,  635,  3. 
Apophasis,  637,  XI.,  2. 
Aposiopesis,  636, 1.,  3;  637,  XI.,  3. 
Apostrophe,  637,  X. 
Apparent  agent,  388. 
Appendix  with  short  increm.,  p.  343, 

foot-note  2. 
Appendix,  634  if. 
Apposition,  partitive,   364.      Clauses 

in  apposition,  501,  III. 
Appositional  genitive,  396,  VI. 
Appositive,  359,  N.  2 ;  agreement  of, 

363 :  in  gend.,  363,  1 ;  force  of,  363, 

3.     infin.  as  appos.,  539,  II. 
Aprlcus,  I  in,  p,  345,  foot-note  4. 
Aptus   w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Aptus  qul  w.  subj.,  503,  II.,  2. 
Apud  w.  ace.,  433  •  433, 1. ;  designat- 
ing abode,  446,  N.  4. 
-ar  final  shortened,  21,  2,  2).    Nouns 

inar,63;  65,2;  quant,  of  increm., 

585,  I.,  1.     Gend.  of  nouns  in  ar, 

dr,  111;  112.    -Ar  in  Plautus  for 

-ar,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 
Arar,  Araris,  decl.,  62,  III.,  1. 
Arbor,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 
Arced  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Archilochian  verse,  604,  N.  1 ;   628, 

X.;   616,  N.:   617,   N . ;   619,   N. ; 

stanza,    631,   XI.    and   XII.;    631, 

XIV.  and  XV. 
Arcus,  decl.,  117, 1. 
Arenae,  locat.,  426,  2,  N. 
Aries,  es  in,  581,  vl.,  1. 
-aris,  adjs.  in,  330;  compar.,  169,  3. 

A  in  -dris,  587,  I.,  6. 
Aristophanic  verse,  628,  II. 
-arium,  nouns  in,  323;  d  in,  587, 

111.,  1. 

18 


-arius,  nouns  in,  324 ;  adjs.  in,  3SO  ; 
ain,  587,  III.,  1. 

AKRANGEMENT  OF  WOEDS  AND 
CLAUSES,  559  ff. ;  words,  560  if. ; 
gen.  rules,  560  ff. ;  effect  of  empha- 
sis and  euphony,  561 ;  chiasmus, 
562 ;  kindred  words,  563  ;  words  w. 
com.  relation,  564 ;  special  rules, 
565  ff. ;  modifiers  of  nouns,  565 ; 
adjs.,  566  ;  verbs,  567 ;  adverbs,  568 ; 
special  words,  569;  demon.,  569. 
I. ;  preps.,  569,  II. ;  conjuncs.  and 
relat.,  569,  III.  ;  non,  569,  IV. ; 
inquam,  did,  569,  V. ;  voc..  569, 
VI.;  clauses,  570  ff.;  as  suoj.  or 
pred..  571;  subord.  elements,  572; 
periods,  573. 

Arsis,  600. 

Article,  48,  6. 

Artus,  decl.,  117,  1,  2);  p.  50,  foot- 
note 1. 

-arus,  d  in,  587, 1.,  6. 

Arx,  decl.,  64. 

Aryan  languages,  638. 

-as  in  genit.,  Decl.  I.,  49, 1.  Nouns 
in  -ds,  Decl.  I.,  50;  Decl.  III.,  64, 
2,  3) ;  decl.,  79.  Gender  of  nouns 
in  -as,  -ds,  105,  106.  -As  in  ad- 
verbs, 304.  I.,  3,  2).  -As,  suffix, 
320, 1.  -As,  adjs.  in,  331.  Quant, 
of  -ds,  -as,  580,  III. ;  581,  V. :  d  in 
voc.  of  nouns  in,  581 1  III.,  2.  Quant. 

_of  increm.  of  nouns  in  -as,  585, 1.,  3. 

As,  646  ;  648,  I. 

Asclepiadean  verse,  628,  IV.  and  V. ; 
631,  IV.-VIII. 

Asking,  construction  w.  verbs  of,  374. 

Asper,  decl.,  150,  N. 

Aspergo,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 

Aspirate,  3,  II..  3. 

-assim  in  pert,  subj.,  240,  4. 

Assimilation  of  vowels,  25;  of  con- 
sonants, 33 ;  34. 

Assimilis  w.  gen. ,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 

Assis,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 

-asso  in  fut.  perf.,  240,  4. 

Asyndeton,  636, 1.,  1. 

At,  310,  3 ;  554,  111.,  2. 

-at,  neut.  stems  in,  58,  2.  -At  in 
Plautus  for  -at,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 

Atat,  interj.,  312, 1. 

-aticus,  d  in,  587,  III.,  2. 

-atilis,  quant,  of  pen.,  587,  II.,  5; 
antepen.,  587,  III.,  2. 

-atim,  d  in,  587, 1.,  7. 

Atone,  310,  1 ;  554,  I. ;  meaning  as, 
451,  5 ;  than,  459,  2;  554,  I.,  2,  N. 
Que — atque,  554,  I.,  5. 

Atom,  310,  3;  554,  III.,  2. 

-atruin,  d  in,  587, 1.,  1. 


394 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Attamen,  554,  III..  3. 

Attraction,  636,  IV.,  5;  of  pron.,445, 

4  and  8 ;  of  anteced.,  445,  9. 
Attributive  adj.,  438,  2. 
-at us,  nouns  in,  324 ;  d  in,  587, 1.,  7. 
An,  interi.,  312,  3. 
Au.  sound,  6:12;  changed  in  compds. , 

344,  4,  ±B.     ' 
Audax,  decl.,  156. 
Audfcw  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  3. 
Audio  w.  pred.  noun,  362,  2,  N.  1 ; 

w.  infin.,  535, 1.,  1. 
Aureus,  646. 

Ausim  for  auserim,  240,  4. 
Ant,  310,  2;  554,  II.,  2.    Aut—aut, 

554,  II.,  K.     Position  of  aut   in 

poetry,  569,  in.,  N. 
Autem^  310,  3;   554,  III.,  2  and  4; 

position,  569,  III. 
Authors,  Latin,  640. 
Autonpmasia,  637,  III.,  1. 
Auxilium,  auxilia,  132. 
Aversion,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399, 1.,  1. 
Avidus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 

p.  315,  foot-note  2 ;  other  constrs., 

400. 

Avis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 
-avus,  6  in,  587, 1.,  6. 
-ax,  gen.  of  nouns  in,  91 ;  verbals  in, 

333;  w.  ger.,  399  j  II.     Quant,  of 

increm.  of  words  in  -oar,  585,  1.,  4, 

(3). 
Axo  for  egero,  240,  4. 

B 

B,  sound,  7,  N. ;  changed  to  0,  33, 1 ; 

to  m,  33,  3,  ft. ;  34,  3.    Quant,  of 

monosyl.  in,  579,  2. 
Baccar,  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 1.,  4. 

(1). 

Bacchius,  597,  N.  1. 
Becoming,  two  dats.  w.  verbs  of,  390, 

N.  1, 1). 
Beginning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1., 

1 .    Beginning  of  sentence  emphatic, 

561, 1. 
Being,  two  dats.  w.  verbs  of,  390,  N. 

1,  1).     Being  able,  wont,   accus- 
tomed, constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1.,  2. 
Betides^  I  in,  p.  345.  foot-note  3. 
Believing,  verbs  or,  w.  dat.,  385,  II. 

Infin.  w.  verbs  of,  535, 1.,  1,  (2). 
Bellum,  decl. ,  51 ,  8.    Belli,  locat. ,  51 , 

8 ;  426,  2. 
Belonging  to,  gen.  w.  adjs.  signifying, 

391,  4. 
Bene,  compar.,  306,  2;   compds.  w. 

dat..  384,  4,  JST.  1.    E  final  m  bene, 

581,  IV.,  4. 


Benefiting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385, 1. 

-ber,  p.  155,  foot-note  1;  names  of 
months  in,  65, 1,  1). 

Bibi,  i  in,  590,  1. 

Bills,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

-bills,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ;  verbals  in, 
333 ;  w.  dat.,  391, 1.  •  compar.,  168, 1. 
Quant,  of  pen.  of  -bills,  587,  II.,  5. 

Bis,  i  in,  579,  3. 

Bonifacere,consulere,  401,  N.  4. 

Bonus,  decl.,  148,  compar.,  165, 

Bos,  decl.,  66;  quant,  of  increm.,  581, 
II.,  3. 

Brachylogy,  636,  II. 

Brazen  age,  640,  III.,  1. 

-brum,  nouns  in,  327. 

-bs,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  86. 

Bubae,  interj.,  312, 1. 

Bucolic  diaeresis,  611,  2 ;  bucol.  caesu- 
ra, p.  356,  foot-note  5. 

-bulum,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; 
nouns  in,  327. 

-bundus.  verbals  in,  333. 

Buris,  decl.,  62,  II. 

Buying,  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  405. 


C  in  place  of  G,  2, 1  and  3.  Sound  of 
c,  7 ;  13.  C  changed  to  q,  33,  2 ; 
dropped,  36,  3.  IsTouns  in  c,  74. 
Gend.  ,111.  Quant,  of  final  syllables 
in  c,  580,  II.,  w.  N.  1. 

-ca,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Caecus,  superl.  wanting,  168,  3. 

Caelum,  plur.,  143,  1. 

Caesura,  caesural  pause,  602. 

Calcar,  decl.,  63. 

Calendar,  Eoman,  641  ff. 

Calends,  642, 1.,  1. 

Calix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Calling,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  373. 

Campester,  decl.,  153,  N.  1. 

Cams,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  3. 

Capitis  w.  verbs,  410,  III.,  N.  2. 

Cappadox,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II., 
3. 

Capso  for  cepero,  240,  4. 

Caput,  decl.,  58. 

Carbasus,  gend.,  53, 1 ;  plur.,  142. 

Career,  car  ceres,  132. 

Cardinals.  172;  174;  decl.,  175  ff. 

Carmen,  decl.,  60. 

Card,  decl..  64,  N.  1. 

Cdrus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ;  w. 
abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

CASES,  ETYMOLOGY  OF,  45  ff.  Cases 
alike,  46,  2.  Case  suffixes,  46,  1 ; 
in  Decl.  III.,  57;  67.  Case  end- 


INDEX  OF  StftiJtiCTS. 


395 


ings,  47,  N.  3 ;  in  Decl.  I.,  48 ;  Decl. 

II.,  51,  2,  3);  Decl.  III.,  67;  for  i- 

stems,  62,  L,  2;   Decl.  IV.,  116; 

Decl.  V.,  120;   pronouns,   184,   1. 

Irregular  case  endings,  Decl.  I.,  49 ; 

Decl.  II.,  52;   Decl.  III.,  67,  N. ; 

Decl.  IV.,  117 ;  Decl.  V.,  121. 
CASES,  SYNTAX  OF.  362  if.     General 

view,  365.     Nommat.,  368.    Vocat., 

369.    Accusat.,  370  ff.     Dat.,  382  ff. 

Gen.,  393  ff.    Abl.,  411  ff.     Cases 

w.  preps.,  432  ff. 
Castrum,  castra,  132. 
Catalectic,  603,  notes  3  and  5. 
Causa,  p.  221.  foot-note  2. 
Causal  adverbs,  305,  N.  2,  4);  con- 
junctions. 310,  5;  311,  7;  554,  V. ; 

555,  VII.    Causal  clauses,  516 ;  517 ; 

w.  quod,  etc.,  516 ;  w.  cum  and  qul, 

517. 
Cause,  gen.  of,  399,  III.,  2 ;  abl.,  413 ; 

416.     Cause  expressed  by  particip., 

549,1. 
Caved,  constr.,  385, 1.     Cavl  w.  subj. 

for  imper&t.,  489,  2) ;  w.  ne  omitted, 

499,2.    E'mcavl,  581,  IV.,  3. 
-ce,  appended,  186,  1  and  2. 
Cecidi,  quant,  of  pen.,  591,  1. 
Cedo,  o  in,  581.  II.,  1. 
Celeber,  celer,  decl.,  153,  N.  1. 
Clio,  constr.,  374,  2. 
Celtiber,  decl.,  51,  4,  3);   quant,  of 

increin.,  585,  III.,  3. 
-cen,  compds.  in,  341, 1. 
Censed,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 
-ceps,  genit.  plur.  of  adjs.  in,  158,  2, 

3) ;  compds,  in,  342,  1. 
-cer,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1. 
Ceres,  es  in,  581,  VI.,  1. 
Certd  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 
Certus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Ceter,    ceterus,    defective,    159,    II. ; 

meaning,  440,  N.  2. 
Ceterum,  310,  3  ;  554,  III.,  2. 
Ch,  sound,  7,  N. ;  13, 1.,  2. 
Changes  in  consonants,  30  ff. 
Characteristic,  stem-characteristic, 

nouns,  46,  3;  verbs,  201.    Gen.  of 

characteristic,  396, V. ;  abl.,  419,  II. ; 

419,  2. 

Chiasmus,  562;  636,  V.,  4. 
Chief  caesura,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 
Choliambus,  622,  4. 
Choosing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  373 ; 

w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 
Choree,  p.  350,  foot-note  2. 
Choriambus,  597,  N.  1. 
-cida,  compds.  m,  341, 1. 
Cilijc,  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 


Cingo,  constr.,  377* 

-cino,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  8. 

-cinus,  adjs.  in,  330. 1. 

-ci6,  nouns  in,  321,  N. 

Circa,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace., 
433;  433,  I. ;  of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot- 
note 5. 

Circiter  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433, 1. 

Circum,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  in 
compds.,  344,  5;  compds.  w.  ace., 
372;  w.  two  aces.,  376;  w.  dat., 
386,  2.  Circum  w.  ace.,  433; 
433, 1. 

Circumdo,  circumfundo,  constr.,  p. 
198,  foot-note  1. 

Circumlocutions  w.  res,  genus,  modus, 
ratio,  636,  III.,  10. 

Cis  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433, 1. ;  i  in,  579,  3. 

Citerior,  compar.,  166. 

Cities,  plur.  in  names  of,  131,  N. 

Cito,  o  in,  581,  II.,  1. 

Citrd,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace., 
433 ;  433,  I. 

Citum,  i  in,  590,  1. 

Cims,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Clam  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  437,  3. 

Clans,  Koman,  how  designated,  331, 
N.  2. 

Classical  period,  640,  II. 

Classification  of  letters,  3;  verbs, 
257  ff, 

Cldssis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Claudus,  not  compared,  169,  4. 

CLAUSES,  348;  N.  1 ;  as  nouns,  gend., 
42,  N.  Prin.  and  sub.  clauses,  348, 
N.  2.  Clause  as  object,  371,  IV. ;  as 
abl.,  abs.,  431,  N.  1;  as  anteced., 
445,  7.  Object  clauses  of  purp., 
498.  Subst.  clauses  of  purp..  499, 
3 ;  of  result,  501.  Restrictive  clauses 
w.  quod,  503, 1.,  N.  1.  Conditional 
clauses,  513 ;  concess.,  514 ff. ;  temp., 
518  ff . ;  principal,  in  indir.  disc., 
523 ;  subord. ,  524.  Indirect  clauses, 
528  ff.  Substantive  clauses,  532  ff. ; 
540.  Eelat.  clauses  supplied  by 
particip.,  549, 4.  Prin.  clauses  sup- 
plied  by  particip.,  549,  5.  Arrang. 
of  clauses,  570  if. 

Claris,  decl.,  62,  111. 

C liens,  decl.,  64. 

Climax,  637,  VI. 

Close  vowels,  3, 1.,  3. 

Clothing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  377. 

-co,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Cognate  ace.,  371,  I.  and  II. 

Cognomen,  649. 

Cdgo,  constr.,  380,  N. ;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 2. 

Coins,  Roman,  646. 


396 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


-cola,  compds.  in,  341, 1. 

Collecting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  380.  N. 

Collective  nouns,  39,  2,  1) ;  w.  plur. 
verb,  461, 1. 

Collis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Collocd,  constr.,  380,  N. 

Oolus,  gend.,  53, 1 ;  118  ;  decl.,  119,  2. 

Com  in  compds.,  344,  5 ;  w.  dat.,  386. 

Coming  together,  constr.  w.  verbs  of, 
380,  JN. 

Comitium,  comitia,  132. 

Command,  dat.  w.  verbs  signifying  to, 
385, 1. ;  infin.  after,  535,  II.  Subj. 
of  command,  483  ff. 

Commiserescit,  commiser'etur,  constr., 
410,  IV.,  N.  1. 

Common  nouns,  39, 2.  Common  quan- 
tity, 16,  III. ;  575. 

Commums  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 

Commuto,  constr.,  422,  N.  2. 

COMPARATIVE  conjuncs.,  311,  2;  555, 
II.  Coimoarat.  degree,  160;  decl., 
154 ;  wanting,  167 ;  formed  by  ma- 

fis,  170.     Comparat.  w.  gen.,  397, 
;  w.  abl.,  417;  w.  quam,  417,  1. 

Use,  444.     Comparat.  w.  quam  and 

subj.,  503,  II.,  3.      O  in  mcrem.  of 

comparat.,  585,  II.,  1. 
Comparative    view    of   conjugations, 

213  ff. 
COMPARISON  of  adjs.,  160  ff. ;  modes 

of,  161;  terminational,  162;  irreg., 

163;   defect.,  166;   adverbial,  170; 

of  adverbs,  306.     Use  of  compar., 

444.    Dat.  w.  verbs  of  comparison, 

385,  4,  3). 

Compes,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 
Compleo,  constr.,  410,  V.,  1;  p.  225, 

foot-note  3. 
Complex   sentences,   348 ;    elements, 

357,  2 ;  subject,  359 ;  predicate,  361. 
Complures,  decl.,  154,  N.  1. 
Compos  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 

-os  in,  581,  VII.,  1 ;   quant,  of  in- 

crem.,  585,  II.,  3. 
Composition  of  words,  340  ff. 
COMPOUND  WORDS,  313,  N.  2 ;  pro- 
nunciation, 8,  3 ;  p.  8,  foot-note  1 ; 

18,  2.     Compd.  nouns,  decl.,  125  ff. 

Compd.   interrog.,  188,  3 ;  nouns, 

341;  343;  adjs.,  342;  343;  verbs, 

221;  344.    Compd.  sentences,  349. 

Compds.  of  preps,  w.  ace. ,  372 ;  w. 

two  aces.,  376 ;  w.  dat.,  386.  Quant. 

in  compds.,  594.  Compd.  verse,  601, 

N.  2. 

Computation  of  money,  647. 
Concealing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.  ?  374. 
Concession    expressed   by   particip., 

549,  2. 


CONCESSIVE  conjunctions,  311?  4 ;  555, 
IV. ;  concess.  subj.  of  desire,  484, 
III.  Concess.  clauses,  514  ff. ;  posi- 
tion of,  572,  II.,  N. 

Condemning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  410, 

Condico  w.  gen.,  409,  N.  3. 

Condition  expressed  by  imperat.,  487, 
3  ;  by  particip.,  549,  2. 

CONDITIONAL  conjuncs.,  311,  3;  555, 
III.  Cond.  sentences,  506  ff. ;  first 
form,  508 ;  sec.  form,  509  ;  third 
form,  510  •  combined  forms,  511 ; 

512.  Condit.  clauses  w.  dum}  etc., 

513.  Condit.   sentences   in  indir. 
disc.,    527.      Position    of    condit. 
clauses,  572,  II.,  N. 

Con/ido  w.  abl.,  425,  1,  1),  N.    ' 
Conitor,  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 
CONJUGATION,  201  ff. ;   of  sum,   204. 

First  conj.,  205  ff.  ;  223  ff. ;  257  ff.  ; 

second,   207  ff. ;   225  ff.  ;   261  ff. ; 

e,  in  imperat.,  581,  IV.,  3 ;  third,  209 

ff. ;  227  ff. ;  269  ff. ;  fourth,  211  ff. ; 

229  ff. ;  284  ff. ;  Is  in  pres.  indie., 

581,  VIII.,  3  -verbs  in  id  of  Conj. 

III.,    217.     Periphrastic,    233    ff. 

Peculiarities,  235  ff.    Comparative 

view,  213.      Irreg.  verbs,  289  ff. ; 

defect.,  297  ff. ;  impers.,  298  ff.    In- 

crem.  of  conj.,  583 ;  584 ;  quant.,  586. 
Conjunctions,  309;  coord.,  554;  sub- 

ord.,  555.     Conj.  omitted,  554, 1.,  6. 

Place  of  conj.  in  sentence,  569,  III. 
Conor,  constr.,  498,  II.,  N.  1. 
Conscius  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3 ; 

p.  315,  foot-note  2;  other  constrs., 

400.     Conscius  mihl  sum  w.  infin., 

535,  L,  3. 

Consecutive  conjs.,  311,  6;  555,  VI. 
Comequor,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
Consimilisw.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 
Consonant  nouns,  55  ff.    Consonant 

stems,  57  ff.    Consonant  verbs,  209. 
Consonants,  3,  II. ;  double,  3,  N.  2; 

sounds  oi,  7 ;  13 ;  15,  2 :  phonetic 

changes  in,  30  ff. ;  interchanged  w. 

vowels,  28 ;  29  ;  assimilated,  33  ;  34 ; 

dissimilated,  35 ;  omitted,  36. 
Consors  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Constitud,  constr.,  498,  L,  N. ;  p.  274, 

foot-note  1. 

Consto  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 
Consul,  decl.,  60. 
Consulo,  constr.,  374,  2;  385, 1. 
Consultus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Contendo  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1 ; 

w.  infin.,  498,  II.,  N.  1 ;  w.  subj., 

p.  274;  foot-note  2. 
Contention,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385, 4,  3). 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


397 


Content™  w.  abl.,  420;  1, 4) ;  421,  III. 
Continental  pronunciation  of  Latin, 

15. 

Contingit,  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 
Continuing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 

Contra,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace., 

433 ;  433, 1. 

Contraction  of  vowels,  23 ;  in  conju- 
gation, 235.    Quant,  of  syllables  in 

contract.,  576, 1. 

Contrdrius  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 
Contro-  in  compds.,  594,  8. 
Convenio,  constr.,  380,  N. 
Convicting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 

II. ;  410,  II. 

Convoco,  constr.,  380,  N. 
Coordinate  conjs.,  309,  1 ;  554. 
Copia,  copiae,  132.     Copia  est  w.  in- 

fin.,  533,  3,  N.  3. 
Copulative  conjs.,  310, 1 ;  554, 1. 
Copula  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 
Cor,  defective,  133,  5 ;  o  in,  579,  3. 
Cor  am,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  abl., 

434. 

Cornu,  decl..  116. 
Coronides,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 
Corpus,  decl.,  61. 
Correlative  pronouns,  191 ;  adverbs, 

305.    Correlat.   compar.   conjuncs., 

555,  II.,  1.     Position  of  correlat. 

clauses,  572,  II.,  N. 
Cos_,  defective,  133,  5. 
-cosus,  adjs.  in,  328. 
Cotidie,  locat,,  120,  N. 
Countries,  names  of,  gend.,  42,  II.,  2  ; 

constr.,  380,  3. 

Cr'edor,  constr.,  534, 1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Crimine,  constr.,  410,  II.,  1. 
-crum,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1; 

nouns  in,  327. 
Cubitus,  648,  IV.,  N. 
Cuicuimodl,  187,  4. 
Cujds,  cujus,  185,  N.  3. 
Cujusmodl,  Gujuscumquemodl,  187,  4, 

-cula,  nouns  in,  321 ;  u  in,  587,  II.,  3. 

-culo,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  8. 

-culum,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; 
nouns  in,  321 ;  327 ;  cu  in,  587,  II.,  3. 

-ciilus,  nouns  in,  321 ;  adjs.  in,  332 ; 
u  in  pen.,  587,  II.,  3. 

Cum,  prep.,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  ap- 
pended, 184,  6;  187,  2;  com  m 
compds.,  344,  5.  Cum  w.  abl., 
434 ;  434,  I. ;  of  accompaniment, 
419 ;  of  manner,  419,  III. ;  after 
Idem,  451,  5;  w.  pi.  verb,  461,  4. 
Cum  w.  ger.,  p.  216,  foot-note  1. 
Cum,  quum,  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ;  305, 


IV.;  311,  1  and  4;  p.  151,  foot- 
notes 1  and  4 ;  311,  7 ;  w.  perf.  in- 
die., 471  j  5  ;  w.  plup.  indie.,  472,  2 ; 
introducing  a  condition,  507,  3;  a 
concession,  515,  III. ;  515,  1ST.  4 ;  a 
causal  clause,  517:  a  temp,  clause, 
521.  Cum  w.  infinit.,  524,  1,  2). 
Cum — turn,)  554, 1.,  5. 

-cumque,  p.  75,  foot-note  3;  305, 
N.  1. 

Cumulo,  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 

Cunctl  w.  part,  gen.,  397,  3,  N.  4. 

-cundus,  verbals  in,  333. 

Cupidus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3  ; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Cupiens  w.  dat.  of  possessor,  387, 
N.3. 

Cupid,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1. 

Cur  a  est  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  3. 

Curd,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

-cus,  adjs.  in,  330 ;  333,  5. 

Cyclic  dactyl,  598,  1,  3);  anapaest, 
598_,  1,  4). 

Cyclops,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  2. 

D 

D  for  t,  32,  N.  1.  D  changed  to  I,  32 ; 
assimilated  to  n  or  s,  34, 1 ;  to  I,  34, 
2 ;  dropped  before  s,  36,  2.  D  final 
dropped,  36,  5,  2).  Quant,  of  final 
syllables  in  d,  579,  2 ;  580,  II. 

-d,  -di,,  nouns  in,  322. 

Dactyl,  597,  I. ;  cyclic,  598,  1,  3). 
Effect  of  dactyls,  610,  2. 

Dactylic  verse,  603,  N.  1 ;  614  ff. ; 
hexameter,  609  ff. 

Ddmma,  gend.,  48,  5. 

Danais,  quant,  of  pen.,  p.  345,  foot- 
note 1. 

Danger,  constr.  w.  expressions  of,  498, 

Daps,  dapis,  defective,  133,  3. 

Dare  litter  as,  385,  1,  N.  Dare  ope- 
ram  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
Ein  dedl,  a  in  datum,  590,  1. 

Daring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1. ,  1. 

Dates,  Eng.  and  Lat. ,  644. 

DATIVE,  Decl.  I.,  49,  4;  Decl.  III., 
58,  2 :  66,  2 ;  67,  N.  1 ;  68,  5 ;  Decl. 
IV.,  117, 1;  Decl.  V.,  121, 1. 

DATIVE,  syntax  of,  382  ff.  Dat.  for 
ace.,  380,  4.  Dat.  in  exclamations, 
381,  N.  3,  3) ;  w.  verbs,  384  ff. ;  w. 
compds. ,  386 ;  of  possessor,  387 ;  of 
agent,  388.  Ethical  dat. ,  389.  Two 
dats.,  390.  Dat.  w.  adjs.,  391 ;  399, 
I.,  3,  N.  1 ;  400, 1 ;  w.  nouns  and 
adverbs,  392 ;  w.  r'efert  and  interest, 
408, 1.,  3.  Dat.  of  penalty,  410,  III., 


398 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


N.  1.  Dat.  of  ger.,  542,  II.;  ge- 
rundive, 544,  2.  ^ 

Dative  sing,  in  I,  581,  I.,  2.  E  in 
dat.,  Decl  III.,  581,  IV.,  2. 

1  Daughter,'  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398, 
I.,  N.  2.  Names  of  daughters,  649, 4. 

Day,  Eom.  division  of,  645. 

D~e  in  compds.  w.  dat.,  386;  w.  abl., 
434,  N.  1.  De  w.  abl.,  434;  434, 
I. ;  for  genit.,  397,  N.  3.  De  w. 
ger.,  p.  316,  foot-note  1. 

Dea,  decl.,  49,  4. 

Debed  w.  pres.  infiru,  537, 1. 

Decay,  phonetic,  p.  12,  foot-note  1. 

Decernd,  constr.,  498,  I.,  N. ;  p.  274, 
foot-note  1. 

Decipio,  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5. 

Declarative  sentence,  350;  in  indir. 
-disc.,  523, 1. 

Declaring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  535, 1. 

DECLENSION,  46;  first,  48;  sec.,  51; 
third,  55  ;  fourth,  116  ;  sec.  ana 
fourth,  119;  fifth,  120;  compds., 
125.  -0  in  Decl.  III.,  581,  II.,  2. 
-E  in  Decl.  I.  and  V.,  581,  IV.,  1. 
Increm.  of  decl.,  582;  584;  quant., 
585. 

D'edoceo,  constr.,  374,  2. 

Defective  nouns,  122 ;  127,  II. ;  129  ff. ; 
adjs.,  159,  II.  Def.  compar.,  166  ff. 
Def.  verbs,  297. 

Degree,  adverbs  of,  305,  N.  2,  3). 

Degrees  of  comparison,  160. 

D&inde,  in  series,  554. 1.,  N.  2. 

Delectd,  constr.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 

Deliberative  subj.,  484,  V.  Delib. 
questions,  523,  II.,  1,  N. 

Delos,  decl.,  54. 

Ddphln,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  3. 

Demanding,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  374. 

DEMONSTRATIVE  pronouns,  186 ;  use 
of,  450  ff. ;  449,  1.  Demon,  roots, 
314,  II.  Demon,  adverbs,  450,  N.  4. 
Demon,  w.  infin.,  538,  3.  Position 
of  demon.,  569, 1.  Demon,  redun- 
dant, 636,  III.,  7. 

Denarius,  646. 

D'enique,  in  series,  554, 1.,  N.  2. 

Denominatives,  335. 

Dental  stems,  Decl.  III.,  58. 

Dentals,  3,  II. ;  3,  N.  1, 1.,  2. 

Dependent  clauses,  348,  N.  2.  De- 
pend, questions,  528,  2,  N. 

Deponent  verbs,  195,  2 ;  231 ;  465,  2. 

Depriving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  414, 1. 

Derivation,  321  ff. ;  of  nouns,  321  ff. ; 
adjs.,  328  ff. ;  verbs,  335  ff. 

Derivatives,  quant,  in,  593. 

-des,  nouns  in,  322. 

Descent,  names  of,  322, 


Descriptive  genit.,  396,  V. ;  abl.,  419, 
II.,  N.  Descrip.  iinperi.  in  temp, 
clauses,  518,  N.  1. 

Desideratives,  284,  2 ;  338. 

Desino,  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5. 

Desire,  subj.  of,  483  ff. ;  for  imperat., 
487,  4. 

Desinng,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399, 1.,  1 
p.  315,  foot-note  2 ;  w.  verbs  of,  410 
V.,  2.  Subj.  after  verbs  of,  498, 1. 
infinit.,  533,  I.,l;  535,11. 

Desisto,  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5. 

D'esperd  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1 ;  w. 
dat.  or  ace.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 

Destitute  of,  constr.  w.  adjs.  signify- 
ing, 414,  III. 

Desum,  synaeresis  in,  608,  III.,  N.  1. 

Desuper  w.  ace.,  437,  1. 

Deterior,  comparison,  166. 

Deterius,  comparison.  306,  3. 

Determinative  compds.,  343, 1. 

Determining,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 

JL.,  1. 

Deterred,  constr.,  p.  279,  foot-note  2. 

Deus,  decl.,  51,  6. 

-dex,  compds.  in,  341, 1. 

Dexter,  decl.,    150,    N.    1);    dextra, 

constr.,  425,  2. 
Dl,  dis,  insep.  prep.,  308  ;  in  compds., 

344,  6 ;  I  in  dl,  594,  2. 
Diaeresis.  602,  2 ;  608,  IV. 
Diana,  I  in,  577, 1.,  3,  (4). 
Diastole,  608,  V. 
Die  for  dice,  238. 
Dicw,  defective,  134. 
Dicolon,  p.  352,  foot-note  3. 
Dlcor,  constr.,  534, 1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Dido  audiens,  390,  N.  3. 
-dicus,  compds.  in,  342, 1 ;  compar., 

164. 

Dido,  decl.,  68. 
Dies,  decl.,  120;  122,  1;  gend.,  123; 

I  in  compds.,  594,  7. 
Difference,  abl.  of,  417,  2 ;  423. 
Differing,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  2; 

385,  4,  2). 

Di/erp  w.  dat,,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Dfficilis,  compar.,  163,  2  ;  w.  dat.,  p. 

205,  foot-note  1 ;  w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Dlgnor,  constr.,  421,  N.  2. 
Dignus,  constr.,  421,  III. ;  421,  N.  3. 

Dignus  qul  w.  subj.,    503,  II.,  2. 

Dignus  w.  supine,  547, 1. 
Diiambus,  597,  .N.  1. 
Dimeter,  603,  N.  2. 
Diminutive  nouns,  321;  adjs.,  332; 

verbs,  339. 
Diphthongs,  4 ;  sounds  of,  6 ;  12 ;  15, 

1 ;  weakening  of,  23,  N. :  quant. 

of  syllab,  w.  diphth.,  576,  I. ;  final 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


399 


diphth.   elided,  608,  I. ;  shortened 

in  hiatus.  608,  II.,  K.  3. 
Dipody,  597,  N.  2. 
DIRECT  object,  370  ff.    Direct  disc., 

522, 1;  changed  to  indir.,  530;  in- 

dir.  to  direct,  531. 

Directing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  499,  2. 
Direction,  how  expressed,  384,  3,  1) ; 

385,  4,  1)  :  386,  3. 
Dirimd,  di  in,  594,  2,  N.  1. 
Dls,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 
Dis,  di,  insep.  prep.,  308 ;  in  compds., 

344,  6. 

Disertus^  di  in,  594,  2,  N.  1. 
Disjunctive  conjunctions,  310,  2 ;  554, 

II.    Disjunct,  questions,  353. 
Dispar,  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1 

and  3. 

Displeasing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385, 1. 
Dispondee,  597,  N.  1. 
Dissenting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385,  2. 
Dissentid,    dissided,  w.    dat.,  p.   200, 

foot-note  2. 
Dissimilation  of  vowels,  26 ;   conso- 

nants;  35. 
Dissimilis,  coinpar.,  163,  2;  constr., 

p.  205,  foot-notes  1,  2,  and  3. 
Dissyllabic     perfects    and     supines, 

quant,  of  pen..  590. 
Distance,  abl.  of,  379,  2 ;  423,  N.  2. 
Distich,  606,  N. ;  elegiac,  615. 
Dlstd  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Distributives,  172,  3;  174;  decl.,  179. 
Ditrochee,  597,  N.  1. 
Diu,  304, 1.,  1 ;  compar.,  306,  4. 
Dlus,  I  in,  577,  I.,  3,  (2). 
Diuturnus,  superl.  wanting,  168,  3. 
Dlversus,  compar.,  167,  2;  w.  dat.,  p. 

205,  foot-note  1. 
Dives,  compar.,  165,  N.  2. 
-dd,  nouns  hi,  327, 4,  N. ;  decl.,  60, 4. 
Do  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2).    See 

also  Dare.    Quant,  of  increm.  of  do, 

586, 1. 

Doced,  constr.,  374,  2. 
Doled  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1 ;  w.  abl., 

p.  221,  foot-note  2 ;  w.  infin.,  p.  310, 

foot-note  2. 
Domus,    gend.,  118 ;    decl.,   119,  1 ; 

constr.,  380, 2;  1) ;  412,  II.,  1 ;  425,  2. 
Donee,  311,  1 ;  in  temp,  clauses,  519. 
Dono,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1 ;  w. 

two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 
Double  consonants,  3,  N.  2.    Double 

constr.   w.  verbs,  384,  2.    Double 

questions,  353. 
Dropping  of  vowels,  27;  consonants, 

36. 

Dry  measure,  Eom.,  648,  II. 
Dt  changed  to  §t,  ss,  or  s,  35,  3. 


Dual  number,  p.  68,  foot-note  1. 

Dubitd,  constr.,  505, 1. 

Due  for  duce,  238. 

Diced  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2. 

Duim  for  dem,  240,  3. 

Dum,  p.  145,  foot-note  1 ;  311, 1  and  3 ; 
555,  I.,  1 ;  w.  pres.  indie.,  467,  4; 
w.  subj.  in  conditions,  513, 1.  Dum 
hi  temp,  clauses,  519;  hi  indir. 
clauses,  529,  II.,  N.  2. 

Dummodo,  311,  3 ;  w.  subj.  in  con- 
ditions, 513, 1. 

Duo,  decl.,  175  ;  o  in,  581,  II.,  1. 

Duration  of  time,  379. 

-dus,  adjs.  in,  333. 

Dv  changed  to  b,  v,  or  d,  32,  N.  2. 

E 

E,  e,  sound,  5 ;  10  ff.  J?  final  short- 
ened, 21,  2,  3).  Nouns  hi  e,  Decl. 
I.,  50  ;  in  e,  Decl.  III.,  63  ;  65, 2 ;  70. 
H,  gend.  of  nouns  in,  Decl.  III., 
111.  -JE  in  abl.,  62.  -^in  plur.  of 
Greek  neuters,  68,  6.  j#-nouns, 
120.  J'-verbs,  207.  ^-sterns,  120, 

1.  -E,  -e,  in  adverbs,  304,  I.,  3; 
304.   II.,   2;   304,  III.,   1.    -E,  -e, 
suffix,  320,  II.    E  changed  to  i,  344, 
4,  N.I.    jE'orehigi,120,  2;  577, 1., 

2,  (1) ;  585,  III.,  1.    E  or  e,  final, 
580,  I. ;  580,  III.,  N.  2;  581,  IV. ; 
in  increm.  of  decl.,  585;  585,  III. ; 
conj.,  586;  586,  II.    .#  elided  be- 

_fore  consonant,  608, 1.,  N.  2. 

E  or  ex,  see  ex. 

^,304,  II.,  3;  305,  V. 

-6a  in  prop,  names,  e  in,  577, 1.,  5,  N. 

Edbm  for  els  =  Us,  p.  73,  foot-note  2. 

Eddem,  304,  II.,  3  ;  305,  V. 

Easy,  dat.  w.  adjs.  signifying,  391,  I. 

Ecastor,  interj.,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 

Ecce,  312,  1;  with  demonstratives, 
186,  3;  with  dat.  hi  exclamations, 
381,  N.  3,  3). 

Eequis,  188,  3.  Ecquid,  p.  180,  foot- 
note 1. 

Ecthlipsis,  604, 1.,  N.  4. 

Edim  for  edam,  240,  3. 

-edd,  nouns  hi,  325 ;  e  in,  687, 1.,  2. 

Edoceo,  constr.,  374,  2. 

Ee  in  synaeresis,  608,  III.,  N.  1. 

Effect,  ace.  of,  371, 1.,  2,  2). 

EMcio,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2: 
501,  II.,  1. 

Effigies,  decl.,  122,  2. 

l!ffort,  subj.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  II. 

Egenus,  compared,  164,  1 ;  w.  gen., 
p.  210,  foot-note  3;  p,  2.19,  foot- 
note 4, 


400 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Eaed,  constr.,  410,  .V.,  1. 
Ego,  decl.,  184.    /in  miU,  581, 1.,  2. 
Vin  ego,  581,  II.,  1. 

f&0m,  interj.,  312, 1. 
te,  inter].,  312,  3;  w.  ace.,  381,  N. 

2;  6  in,  577, 1.,  2,  (3). 
EJio,  eTiodum,  312,  5  ;  o  in,  581,  II.,  1. 
Ei,  iuterj.,  312,  3 ;  w.  dat.,  381,  N.  3, 

3). 
Ei,  pronunciation  as  diphthong.  6,  1 ; 

12, 1 ;  e  or  e  in  ll,  120,  2;  577, 1., 

2,  (1) ;  585,  in.,  1.     Ei  in  synae- 

resis,  608,  III.,  N.  1. 
-els,  'em,  587, 1.,  8. 

fus,  gin,  577, 1.,  2,  (2). 
{,  312,  2  and  6 ;  a  in,  581,  III.,  3. 
ismoai,  186,  4,  N. 
-ela,  e  in,  587,  I.,  4. 
Elegiac  Distich,  615. 
Elements  of  sentences,  356  ff. 
-elis,  ein,  587, 1.,  4. 
Elision,  608, 1. 
-ella,  nouns  in,  321,  4. 
J^am  for  g»  illam,  186,  3. 
Ellipsis,  636, 1. 
-elluxn,  nouns  in,  321,  4. 
Ellum  for  ett  *to»,  186,  3. 
-ellus  in  nouns,  321,  4;  adjs.,  332, 
_N.  1. 

Muvfes,  defective,  122,  3. 
-em  in  ace.,  62. 
Emotion,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. ; 

410,  V.,  2;  535,  in. 
Emphasis  in  arrang.  of  words,  561. 
Emphatic  forms  of  pronouns,  184,  3 : 

185,    N.    2.      Emphatic    adverbial 
^phrases,  305,  N.  4. 
En,  312,  1;  TV.  demonstratives,  186, 

3  ;  in  exclamations,  381,  N.  3,  3). 
-en,  suffix.  320,  II. ;  nouns  in,  327. 

Quant,  of  increm.  of  nouns  in  -en, 

585,  III.,  2. 
-ena,  e  in,  587, 1.,  5. 
Enallage,  636,  IV. 
Enclitics,  accent,  18,  2,  1);  quant., 

579, 1.,  1. 

End,  dat.  of.  384, 1,  3).     End  of  sen- 
tence emphatic,  561,  IE. 
Endeavoring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498, 

II.,  N.  1. 

Ending,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533,1.,  1. 
Endings  of  genitive,  47;    of  cases, 

Decl.  I.,  48-49;  Decl.  II.,  51,  2, 

3);  52;  Decl.  HI.,  62,  I.,  2;   67; 

Decl.  IV.,  116 ;  117 ;  Decl.  V.,  120 ; 

121;  in  compar.,  162;   conj.,  213- 

216. 

Endom,  o  in,  581,  II.  ?  1. 
English  pronunciation  of  Latin,  9  ff. 
-eni,  e  in,  587, 1.,  8. 


Enim,  310,  5;  554,  V.,  8;  position, 
^569,  III. 

Enltor,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
Enneasyllabic  verse,  619,  1. 
-ensis,  adjs.  in,  330 ;  331. 
-ent.  suffix,  320,  II. 
-entia,  -entio,  suffixes,  p.  155,  foot- 
note 9. 
-entior,  -entissimus,  in  compar., 

164. 

-ento,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  9. 
Enumerative  asyndeton,  p.  370,  foot- 
_note  1. 

-enus,  e  in,  587, 1.,  5. 
Ed,  Ire,  w.  sup.  in  -um,  546,  2 ;  Irl  w. 

do.,  546,  3.     /in  Ham,  ibo,  etc.,  586, 

III.,  4.    /in  itum,  590, 1. 
Ed,  adverb,  304,  II.,  3,  N. ;  305,  H. ; 

554,  IV.,  1;  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot- 
note 3. 

Eddem,  305,  II. 
Epenthesis,  635,  4. 
Ephesus,  decl.,  51,  8. 
Epicene  nouns,  43,  3. 
Epiphora,  636,  III.,  4. 
Epitome,  decl.,  50. 
Epizeuxis,  636,  III.,  5. 
-eps,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  88. 
Epulum,  epulae,  143,  3. 
Equester,  decl.,  153,  N.  1. 
Equivalents,  metrical,  598. 
-er,  nouns  in,  gend.,  53;  99;  103; 

decl.,  51,  4;  60,  3;  adjs.  in,  decl., 

62,  IV.,  N.  1 ;  150.  N. ;  153,  N.  2 ; 

compar.,  163, 1.     Quant,  of  increm. 
_of  nouns  in  -er,  585,  III.,  4. 
-ere  for  erunt,  236. 
JSrga,,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace., 

433 ;  433, 1. ;  after  adjs.,  391,  II.,  1 ; 

for  gen.,  396,  III.,  N.I. 
Ergo,  310,  4 ;  p.  151,  foot-note  1 ;  w. 

gen.,  398,  5. 

-erunt  for  -erunt,  236,  N. ;  586,  II. ,  4. 
Es  attached  to  preceding  word,  27,  N. ; 

e  in,  579,  3 ;  in  compds.,  581,  VI.,  2. 
-es,  -es,  suffixes,  320,  II.    Nouns  in 

-es,   327;    decl.,   65,  1;    80-    120; 

quant,    of  increm.,    585,    III.,  4; 

gend.,    99;    104  \    105;    109;    120. 

Decl.  of  nouns  in  -es,  81 ;  gend. . 

99  ;  104.    Es  or  -es  final,  580,  III. ; 

581,  VI.    A  in  voc.  of  Greek  nouns 

in  -es,  p.  341,  foot-note  1. 
-esimus,  e  in,  587,  III.,  3. 
Esse  omitted,  534,  N. 
Essential  elements  of  sentences,  357, 1. 
-esso,  -essim,  in   fut.    perf.    and 

perf.  subj.,  240,  4. 
-esso,  verbs  -in,  336,  N.  2. 
Est  drops  initial,  27,  N.    Est  ut,  498, 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


401 


II.,  N.  2.  Ed,  impels.,  constr.,  p. 
276,  foot-note  2.  Est  at  end  of  line, 
613,  N.  3. 

-ester,  -estris,  adjs.  in,  330, 1. 

Et,  310, 1 ;  554,  I. ;  meaning  as,  451, 
5;  than,  459,  2.  Et— et,  et—que, 
que—et,  neque  (nee)— et,  et—neque 
(nee),  554,  I.,  5.  Et  in  poetry, 
position,  569,  III.,  N.  Preps,  re- 
peated w.  et — et,  636,  III.,  6. 

-et  in  Plautus  for  -et,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 

-eta,  e  in,  587, 1.,  7. 

-etas,  e  in.  587,  II. ,  4. 

Etenim,  310,  5;  554,  V.,  2. 

Ethical  dat.,  389. 

Etiam,  310, 1 ;  554, 1.,  2,  4,  and  5. 

Etiamsl,  etsi,  311,  4;  in  concessions, 
_515,  II.  Msi  =  <  yet,'  etc.,  515,  N.  2. 

-etum,  nouns  in,  323 ;  e  in,  587, 1.,  7. 

-etus,  gin,  587,  L,  7. 

Etymology,  37-344.  Figures  of  ety- 
mol.,  634,  N. ;  635. 

Eu,  sound,  6, 1 ;  12. 

Euqe,  interj.,  312,  2  and  6. 

Euhoe,  interj.,  312,  2. 

Euphemism,  637,  Xt,  4. 

Euphony  in  arrang.  of  words,  561.  _ 

-ens,  adjs.  in,  329 ;  -ens,  331.  -Em 
_in  j>rop.  nouns,  e  in,  577,  5,  N. 

JEvenit,  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

Evoe,  interj.,  312,  2. 

Ex,  e,  in  compdk,  344,  5;  w.  dat., 
386,  2;  w.  abl.,  434,  N.  1.  Ex,  w. 
abl.  for  part,  gen.,  397,  N.  3.  Ex, 
e.w.  abL,  434;  434, 1.  E,  ex,  434, 
N.  2.  J&,  2,  w.  ger.,  p.  316,  foot- 
note 1. 

-ex,  -ex,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  92 ;  93. 
Compds.  in  -ex,  341, 1. 

Exadversum,  exaaversus,  w.  ace.,  433. 

Exanimus,  exanimis,  159,  III. 

Exchanging,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  422, 
N.  2. 

Exclamatory  sentences,  355;  ace.  in, 
381 ;  voc.,  nom.,  dat.  in,  381,  N.  3 ; 
infin.  in,  539,  III. 

Existimo,  constr.,  534, 1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Exonero,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Exos,  -os  in,  581,  VII.,  1. 

Expedio,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Expers  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Explicative  asyndeton,  p.  370,  foot- 
note 1. 

Exposed  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Exsequids,  ace.  of  limit,  380,  2,  3). 

Exsolvd,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Exsors  w.  gen.,  j>.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Extemplo,  304,  ft.,  1,  N. 

Extent  of  space,  ace.  of,  879. 

External  object,  871, 1,,  1. 


Extents,  compar.,  163,  3. 

Extra,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace., 

433;  433,1. 

Extremus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 
Exuo,  constr.,  377 ;  p.  198,  foot-note 

1 ;  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 


Fac  for  face,  238.    Fac  rie  w.  subj.  in 

prohibitions,  489,   2).      A  in  jac, 

579,  3. 

Fades,  decl.,  122,  2. 
FaciUs,  compar.,  163,  2;  w.  dat.,  p. 

205,  foot-note  1  ;  w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Facio,  accent  of  compds.,  18,  2,  2). 

Facio  omitted,  368,  3,  N.  1.     Facio 

w.  dat.,  385,  3  ;  w.  pred.  gen.,  403  ; 

w.  abl.,  415,  ILL,  N.  1.    Facio  tit, 

498,  II.,  N.  2.    Facio  w.  subj.,  p. 

274,  foot-note  2;  499,  2;  501,  II.,  1. 

E  before  f  in  compds.,  594,  6. 
-facto,  verbs  in,  344,  3. 
Facultds,  facultdteSj  132. 
Falsus,  compar.,  167,  2. 
Fdma  fert  w.  infin.,  535,  1.,  3. 
Fames,  abl.  fame,  137,  2. 
Familia,  genitive,  49,  1.     Familid, 

constr.,  415,  II.,  N. 
Far,  decl.,  63,  2,  N.  ;  133,  N. 
Fas,  defect.,  134;  w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Fastidiosus   w.   gen.,    p.    210,    foot- 

note 3. 

Faux,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 
Favorite  vowel  2  24. 
Fax,  quant,  of  mcrem.,  585,  1.,  4,  (3). 
Faxdjfaxim,  forfecerd,tfecerim,  240,  4. 
Fearing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  III. 
Febris,  decl.,  62,  ILL 
Feeling,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III.  ; 

410,  T.,  2;  535,  HI. 
Feet  in  versification,  597. 
Fel,  defective,  133,  4,  N. 
Felix,  decl.,  156. 

Feminine,  42,  II.    Fern,  caesura,  611  ,  N. 
Fer  for  fere,  238  ;  e  in,  579,  3. 
-fer,  compds.  in,  342,  1;  decl.,  51,  4, 

2)  ;  adjs.  in,  150,  3),  N. 
Fere,ferme,  e  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 
Fero  and  compds.,  increm.  of,  586,  1. 
Feror,  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Fertilis  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Ferus,  not  compared,  169,  4. 
Festivals,  plur.  in  names  of,  explained, 

131,  N.  ;  plur.  in  -alia,  decl.,  136,  3. 
-fex,  compds.  in,  341,  1. 
-fico,  verbs  in,  344,  3. 
-ficus,  adjs.  in,  342,  1  ;  compar.,  164. 


-,         .     ,       ,  ., 

Fidelia  w.  dat.,  p,  205,  foot-note  1, 
Fifa,  i  in,  590,  f. 


402 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Fidd  w.  abl.,  425, 1, 1),  N. 

Fifth  decl.,  120  ff. ;  g final  in, 581,  IV.,  1. 

FIGURES  of  prosody,  608.  Fig.  of 
speech,  634  ff. ;  of  etymology,  634, 
N.  ;  635 :  of  syntax,  634,  N. ;  636 ; 
of  rhetoric,  634,  N. ;  637. 

Filia,  decl.,  49,  4. 

Filix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  243,  foot- 
note 2. 

Filling,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  p.  225, 
foot-note  3. 

FINAL  conjunctions,  311,  5 ;  555,  V. 
Final  vowels  and  syllables,  quant, 
of,  580 ;  581.  Fin.  syl.  of  verse,  605. 
Fin.  syl.  elided,  608,  I.  Fin.  long 
vowel  or  diphthong  shortened  in 
hiatus.  608,  U.,  N.  3. 

Finis,  decl.,  62,  IV. ;  singular  and 
plur.,  132. 

Finite  verb,  199,  N. 

Finitimus,  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes 
1  and  3. 

Fid  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  1);  w. 
abl.,  415,  III.,  N.  1.  Fit,  constr., 
p.  276,  foot-note  2.  I  or  i  in  fid, 
577, 1.,  3,  (1).  E before/ in  compds., 
594,  6. 

First  decl.,  48  ff. ;  6  final  in,  581,  IV.,  1. 
First  conjugat. ,  205  ff. ;  223  ff. ;  257  ff. 

Flagitd  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Flocti,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 

Flos,  decl.,  61. 

Following,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  501, 

Foot,  caesura  of,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 
Eoman  foot,  648,  IV. 

1  For/  how  translated,  384,  3. 

Fords,  304,  I.,  1. 

Fore  ut,  537,  3. 

Foreign  words  indecl.,  128,  2. 

Forgetting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  407. 

Foris,  *  in,  581,  VIII.   1. 

Formation  of  stems  of  verbs,  249  ff. ; 
of  words,  313  ff. ;  of  nouns,  321  ff. 

Fornix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Fors,  defective,  134. 

Forsitan,  304,  IV.,  N.  2;  w.  subj.,  p. 
267,  foot-note  1. 

Fortufcus,  l  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 

Fortuna'fortunae.  132. 

Fourth  decl. ,  11 6  ff.  Fourth  conjugat. , 
211  ff. ;  229  ff. ;  284  ff. 

Fractions,  174, 1. 

Fraudd,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Fraus,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 

Free  from,  constr.  w.  adjs.  signify- 
ing, 414,  HI. 

Frenum,  ^\.freni,frena,  143,  2. 

Frequentatives,  336. 


Fretus  w.  abl.,  425, 1, 1),  N. 

Fricatives,  3,  II.,  4. 

Friendly,  constr.  w.  adjs.  signifying, 

391, 1.  and  II. 
Fructus,  decl.,  116. 
Frugi,  indeclin.,   159,  I. ;    compar., 

165,  N.  2. 
Fruor,  constr.,  421,  I.  ;  421,  N.   4; 

gerundive  of,  544,  2,  N.  5. 
Frux,  defective,    133,   3  ;    quant,   of 

increm.,  535,  V.,  2. 
Fuam  for  sim,  204,  2. 
Fulness,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399, 1.,  3. 
Fungor,  constr.,  421,  I. ;  421,  N.  4; 

gerundive  of,  544,  2,  N.  5. 
Fur,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  V.,  2. 
Furnishing,   constr.  w.  verbs  of,  p. 

225,  foot-note  3. 
FUTURE,  197;  222.    Fut.  indie.,  470; 

for  imperat.,  487, 4.    Fut.  in  condit., 

511,  1,  N.  1 ;  in  temp,  clauses,  p. 

293,  foot-note    2.     Fut.  in   subj., 

479 ;  481 ;  496.    Fut.  imperat.,  487, 

2.     Fut.  infin.,   537  ;    periphrast., 

537,  3.     Fut.  particip.,  550. 
FUTURE  PERFECT,  197,  II. ;  222,  II. ; 

473 ;  in  subj.,  496 ;  in  indir.  disc., 

525.  2  ;  in  infinit.,  537,  3,  N.  2.    -Is 

in  fut.  perf.,  581,  VHL,  5. 
Futurum  esse  ut,  537,  3.     Futurum 

sit,  esset,  ut,  p.  272,  foot-note  2. 

G 

G  formed  from  C,  2,  2 ;  sound.  7 ;  13 ; 
changed  to  c,  33, 1;  assimilated  to 
m,  34,  3 ;  dropped,  36,  3. 

Gauded,  constr.,  p.  221,  foot-note  2; 
p.  310,  foot-note  2. 

Gavisus,  i  in,  586,  HI.,  2. 

Gemd  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N. 

Gems,  gend.  of  names  of,  53,  1. 

Gender,  41  ff.  ;Decl.  I.,  48 ;  Decl.  II., 
53;  Decl.  III.,  99-115;  Decl.  IV., 
118.  Decl.  V.,  123;  general  table, 
124. 

Gener,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

General  relatives,  p.  75,  foot-note  3. 
Gen.  rel.  adverbs,  305,  N.  1.  Gen. 
subject,  460, 1,  N.  2.  Gen.  truths, 
467,  II. ;  in  conditions,  508,  5 ;  511, 
1.  Gen.  negat.,  553, 1  and  2. 

Genere,  constr.,  415,  II.,  N. 

GENITIVE,  endings  of,  47  ;  Decl.  I.,  as 
for  ae,  urn  for  drum,  49 ;  Decl.  II., 
i  for  ii,  51,  5 ;  um  for  drum,  52,  3  ; 
on  for  drum,  54,  N.  1 ;  Decl.  III., 
um  or  ium.  p.  36,  foot-notes  3  and 
4;  p.  38,  foot-note  2;  p.  40,  foot- 
note 3 ;  yos,  ys,  68,  2 ;  on,  68,  4 ; 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


403 


Decl.  IV.,  uis,  uos,  for  us,  117; 
Decl.  V.,  I,  el,  es,  for  II,  121.  Gen. 
in  adjs.,  158,  2.  -C&  in  gen.,  581, 
I.X..,  2. 

GENITIVE,  syntax,  393  ff. ;  how  ren- 
dered, 393,  N.  Gen.  w.  possessives, 
363,  4,  1);  w.  nouns,  395;  varie- 
ties, 396 ;  in  special  constructions, 
398 ;  406  ff. ;  w.  adjs.,  391,  II.,  4 ; 
399;  w.  verbs,  401  ff.  Pred.  gen., 
401  ff. ;  of  price,  404 ;  405.  Ace. 
and  gen.,  409.  Gen.  w.  adverbs, 
397,  4.  Gen.  of  ger.,  542,  I.  Posi- 
tion of  gen.  w.  adj.,  565,  2 ;  between 
prep,  and  case,  569,  II.,  3. 

Genitus  w.  abl.,  415,  II. 

(rentes,  Koman,  how  designated,  331, 
N.  2. 

Gentile  nouns,  331,  N.  1. 

Genus,  circumlocutions  w.,  636,  III., 
10. 

-ger,  compds.  in,  342,  1 ;  decl.,  51, 
4,2);  adjs.,  150,  N. 

GERUND,  200,  II. ;  endings,  248.  Ger- 
und in  sequence  of  tenses,  495,  IV. 
Syntax  of  gerund,  541 ;  542.  Ger. 
w.  pass,  meaning,  541,  N.  Cases 
of  ger.,  542.  Ger.  w.  gen.,  met, 
etc.,  542,  I.,  N.  1;  denoting  pur- 
pose, 542, 1.,  N.  2 ;  542,  111.,  JST.  2. 

GERUNDIVE,  200,  IV.  ;  syntax,  543. 
Gerund,  constr. ,  543,  N. ;  544 ;  de- 
noting purpose,  544,  2,  N.  2 ;  w. 
official  names,  544,  2,  N.  3;  after 
comparat.,  544,  2,  N.  4. 

G-igno  w.  genul,  genitum,  592,  2. 

Giving,  verbs  of',  w.  two  dats.,  390, 
N.  1,  2). 

Glacws,  decl.,  122,  3. 

Gils,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4 ;  quant, 
ofincrem.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

Gly conic  verse,  604,  ft.  1 ;  628,  III. 
and  VII. ;  631,  IV. -VI. 

Gn  lengthens  preceding  vowel,  16,  N.  2. 

Gndrus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Gnomic  perfect,  471,  5. 

-go,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  60,  4. 

Going,  verbs  of,  w.  two  dats. ,  390,  N. 

Golden  age,  640,  II.,  1. 

Gracilis,  compar.,  163,  2. 

Gratia,  grdtiae,  132. 

Grdtis}ivi,f  581,  VIII.,  1. 

Grdtmtus,  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 

Grains  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Graviter  fero,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot- 
note 2. 

Greater  Ionic,  597,  N.  1;  Archilo- 
chian,  628,  X. ;  616,  N. ;  619,  N. ; 


Asclepiadean,  628,  V. ;  Sapphic, 
628,  VII. ;  Alcaic,  628,  IX. 

GREEK  NOUNS,  Decl.  L.  50 ;  Decl.  II., 
54;  Decl.  III.,  68.  Long  vowels  in 
Greek  nouns,  577,  5.  7,  i,  in  dat. 
and  voc.,  581,  1.,  2.  -A  in  voc., 
581,  III.,  2.  -E  in  plur.,  581,  IV., 
1.  -As  in  ace.,  581,  V.,  2.  -Es  in 
Greek  words,  581,  VI.,  3;  -os,  581, 
VII.,  2;  -us,  581,  IX.,  3.  A  in 
increm.  of  nouns  in  a  and  as,  585, 
I.,  3.  0  in  increm.,  585,  1I.;  5;  e 
in  words  in  -en,  585,  III.,  2 ;  in  -es 
and-*/*,  585,  111.,  4.  Quant,  of  in- 
crem. of  words  in  -ax,  585, 1.,  4,  (3). 
/  in  increm.,  585,  IV.,  3. 

Grimm's  law,  638,  N.  2. 

Grus,  decl.,  66,  2. 

Gryps,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  3. 

Guilt,  adjs.  oft  w.  genit.,  399, 1.,  3. 

Gutturals,  3,  II. ;  before  s%  30.  Gut- 
tural stems,  59. 

H 

H  changed  to  c,  33, 1.  N.  1 ;  following 
other  consonants,  does  not  lengthen 
preceding  syllable,  576,  1,  N.  1. 
Syllable  oefore  h  short,  577. 

Habed,  meaning,  p.  202,  foot-note  3; 
w.  two  aces.,  373,  1,  N.  1 :  w.  perf. 
part.,  388, 1,  N. ;  w.  two  dats.,  390, 
N.  1,  2). 

Hac,  304,  II. ,  3 ;  305,  V. 

Hadria,  gend.,  48,  5. 

Haec  for  nae,  p.  72,  foot-note  7. 

Hdlitus^  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 

Happening,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  501, 
J..,  i. 

Haud,  use,  552. 

JJe/a,  interj.,  312,  6 ;  a  in,  581,  III.,  3. 

^few.interj.,312,l:w.dat.,381,N.3,3. 

Hendiadys,  636,  III.,  2. 

Hepar*  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 1.,  4, 1. 

Hephtnemimeral  caesura,  p.  356,  foot- 
note 4. 

Hephthemimeris.  597,  N.  2. 

Her'es,  quant,  ofincrem.,  585,  III.,  3. 

Heroic  verse,  604,  N.  2. 

Herds,  decl.,  68. 

Heteroclites,  127  ;  135  ff. ;  adjs.,  159, 

Heterogeneous  nouns,  127;  141  ff. 

Heu,  interj.,  312,  3 ;  w.  ace.,  381,  N.  2. 
Heu  in  hiatus,  608,  II.,  1. 

Heus,  interj.,  312,  5. 

Hexameter,  603,  notes  2  and  6  ;  609  ff. 

Hiatus,  608,  II. 

Eiler,  decl.,  51,  4,  3);  quant,  of  in- 
crem., 585,  lit.,  3. 


404 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Hie,  186;  191 ;  use,  450;  l  in,  579,  3.    0 

in  hoc,  579.  3.    H5c  redundant,  636, 

III.,  7. 
Hie,  304,  III.,  2 ;  305, 1. ;  w.  gen.,  p. 

209,  foot-note  3. 
Hilarus,  hilaris^  159,  III. 
Hinc,  305,  III. 

Hindering,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  505,  II. 
Historical  tenses,  198;  hist,   present, 

467,  III. ;  in  temp,  clauses,  518,  N. 

1 ;  hist,  perfect,  198, 1 ;  197,  N.  1 ; 

471,  11.    Hist,  tenses  in  sequence, 

491  ff.     Hist,  infin.,  536,  1. 
Hoc,  304,  II.,  3,  N. 
Hodie,  120,  N. ;  304,  II.,  1;  e  in,  p. 

341,  foot-note  2;  o  in,  594,  10. 
HonestuB  w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Horace,  logaoedic  verses  in,  628 ;  ver- 
sification, 630  ff. ;  lyric  metres,  631 ; 

index,  632. 

Horreo  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N. 
Horsum,  305.  II. 
Hortative  subj.,  484,  II. 
Hortor,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 
Hortus,  hortl,  132. 
Hospitus,  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 
Hostile,  constr.  w.   adjs.   signifying, 

391,  II.,  1. 
Hostis,  decl.,  62. 
Hours,  Koman,  645 ;  645,  2. 
H  S,  signification,  647,  3. 
Hue,  304,  II.,  3,  N. ;  305,  II. ;  w.  gen., 

p.  209,  foot-note  3. 
Hujusmodl,  186,  4,  N. 
Humilis,  compar.,  163,  2. 
Humus,  gend.,  53,  1 ;   huml,  locat., 

426,  2. 
;  Husband,'  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398, 

1,  N.  2. 

Hy  drops,  quant,  of  incrern.,  585,  II.,  2. 
Hypallage,  636,  IV.,  2. 
Hyperbaton,  636,  V. 
Hyperbole,  637,  VI. 
Hypermetrical,  603,  N.  3. 
Hypothetical,  see  Conditional. 
Hysteron  proteron,  636,  V.,  2. 


I  for  J,  p.  2,  foot-note  1.  /,  i,  sound, 
5;  10  ff.  /final  shortened,  21,  2, 
3).  /  interchanged  with  /,  28 ; 
dropped,  36,  4.  /  for  il  and  ie, 
51,  5.  /-nouns,  55;  i- verbs,  211. 
Stems  in  i,  62  ff.  ;  origin  of,  p.  35, 
foot-note  3.  Nouns  in  I,  71 ;  gend., 
111.  -/in  abl.,  62;  for  li,  121, 1 ; 
in  adverbs,  304,  II.,  2;  304,  III.,  1. 
/,  t,  or  f  final,  580,  I,  •,  581,  1. ;  in 


increments  of  decl.,  585;  585,  IV.; 
conj.,  586;  586,  111.  /as  conso- 
nant, 608,  III.,  N.  2. 

-ia,  suffix,  320.  II.  Nouns  in  -ia, 
325 ;  -ia  and  les,  138. 

-ia  in  prop,  names,  I  in,  577,  5,  N. 

-iacus,  adjs.  in,  331 ;  a  in,  587,  II.,  2. 

-iades,  a  in,  587,  II.,  1. 

Iambic  verse.  603,  N.  1 ;  621  ff. ;  stan- 
za, 631,  XVI. 

Iambus,  597,  II. ;  irrational,  598, 1,  2). 

-ianus,  adjs.  in,  331. 

-ibam  for  -iebam,  240,  1. 

Iber,  decl.,  51,  4, 3);  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  HI.,  3. 

Ibi,  304,  111.,  2 ;  305, 1.  and  IV. ;  i  in, 
581, 1.,  2 ;  quant,  of  ult.  in  compds., 
594.  9. 

-ifoilis,  quant,  of  antepen.,  587,  IV.,  1. 

-Jbo,  -ibor,  for  -4am,  -iar,  240,  2. 

Ibus,  for  els=ils,  p.  73,  foot-note  2. 

-icius,  adjs.  in,  329. 

Ictus,  599 :'  place  in  hexam.,  612. 

-icus,  adjs.  in,  330;  331;  compar., 
169,  3.  /in  icus.  587,  II.,  2. 


note  2. 


Idcirco,  554,  IV.,  2. 

Idem,  decl.,  186,  VI. ;  w.  dat.,  391, 

N.I.     Use  of  Idem,  451. 
Ideo,  554, 1V.A  2. 
-ides  or  -ides,  in  patronymics,  587, 

IL,  1. 

Ides,  642, 1.,  3. 
-I  da,  tin,  587,1.,  2. 
Iddneus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Idoneus  qww.  subj.,  503,  II.,  2. 
Idus,  gend.,  118. 
-idus,  i'm,  587,  H.,  2. 
-ie,  suffix,  320,  II. 
-iensis,  adjs.  in,  331. 
-ier  for  I  in  infinit.,  240,  6. 
-ies,  nouns  in,  325,  N.  1 ;  327 ;  -ife 

and  -ia,  138. 
•iginti,  quant,  of  antepen.,  587,  III., 


•  Igitur,  310,  4;  554,  IV.,  3;  position, 
_  569,  III. 
Ignarus  w.  gen. ,  p.  210,  foot-note  3 ; 

p.  315,  foot-note  2. 
Ignis,  decl.,  62. 

Ignotusvr.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
-ig5,  nouns  in,  324,  N. ;  327,  4,  N. ; 

iin,  587,  I.,  2. 

-lie,  nouns  in,  323 ;  I  in,  587, 1.,  4. 
llico,  304,  II.,  1,  N. ;  o  in,  581,  II. ,  1. 
I  Lion,  decl.,  54. 
-ilis,  compar.  of  adjs.  in,  163,  2 :  168, 

1.    /in-i«*,  587.  II,,  5. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


405 


•His,  adjs.  in,  330;  compar.,  169,  3. 

7  in  iJw,587,  II.,  N.I. 
-ilia,  nouns  in,  321,  4. 
Iliac  305,  V. 

Illative  conjs.,  310,  4 ;  554,  IV. 
file,  186;   191:   use,  450;   position, 

569,  I.,  1.    Illud   redundant,  636, 

Illtc,  decl.,  186,  2. 

Iltic,  304,  III.,  2;  305,  I. 

TWww,  305,  III. 

-illo,  verbs  in,  339. 

Hid,  Hide,  illuc,  304,  II.,  3,  N.  ;  illuc, 
305,  II. 

Illudo,  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 
illus,    -ilium,  nouns    in,  321,  4; 
adjs.,  332,  N.  1. 

-iia  in  ace.,  62;  for  -am  or  -em  in 
pros,  subj.,  240,  3.  Adverbs  in  -im, 
p.  144,  foot-note  3. 

Imbecillis,  compar.,  163,  2. 

Imber,  decl.,  62,  N.  2;  65, 1,  2). 

Imbud,  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 

Immemor  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note 
3;_quant.  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 

-imonia,  nouns  in,  325;  o  in,  587, 
III.,  4. 

-imonium,  nouns  in,  324 ;  o  in,  587, 
III.,  4. 

Impealmentum,  impedimenta,  132. 

Impello,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

IMPERATIVE,  196,  III.  Syntax,  487  ff. 
Imperat.  in  prohibitions,  488  ff. ;  in 
incur,  disc. ,  523,  III.  Imperat.  sen- 
tences, 354.  Imperat.  subj,,  484, 
IV.  E  in  imperat.,  Coni.  II.,  581, 
IV.,  3. 

IMPERFECT  TENSE,  197,  I.;  222,  I. 
Imperf.  indie.,  468  ff. ;  subj.,  480; 
in  subj.  of  desire,  483,  2 ;  in  potent, 
subj.,  485,  N.  1;  in  seq.  of  tenses, 
493 ;  495,  III. ;  for  future  time,  496, 
I. ;  in  condit.,  507,  III. ;  510 ;  513, 
N.  1;  in  concess.,  515,  II.,  3;  in 
temp,  clauses,  518.  N.  1 ;  518,  1 ; 
519,  2,  N.  1 ;  520,  II. ;  521,  II. 

Imperitm  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3 ; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Impero,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1 ; 
p.  310,  foot-note  1. 

Impersonal  verbs,  298  ff. ;  impers. 
pass.,  195,  II.,  1 ;  534,  1.  Clauses 
of  result  as  subjects  of  impers.  verbs, 
501, 1.,  1. 

Impertio,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 

Impetro,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

Impleo,  constr.,  410,  V.,  1 ;  p.  225, 
foot-note  3. 

Imploring,  constr.  w,  verbs  of,  374,  2, 
Is  •  3. 


Impos,  os  in,  581,  VII.,  1 ;  quant,  of 
mcrem.,  585,  II.,  3. 

Impotens  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Imprudens  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note 
3 ;  w.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Impulse,  subj.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  II. 

Imputing,  two  datives  w.  verbs  of, 

_  390,  N.  1,  2). 

Imns,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

-in,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Li,  308 ;  in  compds.,  344,  5  and  6 ;  w. 
dat.,  386.  In  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  435; 
435,  N.  1;  435,  I.:  w.  ace.  after 
adjs.,  391,  II.,  1;  for  genit.,  396, 
III.,  N.  1.  In  w.  abl.  for  genit., 
397,  3,  N.  3.  In  w.  ger.,  p.  315, 
foot-note  5;  p.  316,  foot-note  1.  / 
in  in,  579,  3. 

-ma/,  nouns  in,  324. 

Incassum,  304,  I.,  2. 

Incedo^  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 

Inceptives,  280 ;  337. 

Incertus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Inchoatives,  337. 

Inclination,  constr.  w.  adjs.  of,  391, 
II.,  1,  (2). 

Inclutv.8,  compar.,  167,  2. 

Incredibilis  w.  supine,  547, 1. 

Increments,  quant,  in,  582  ff . ;  decl., 
585 ;  conj.,  586. 

Inde,  304,  III.,  N. ;  305,  III.  •  310,  4. 

Indeclinable  nouns,  127,  I.;  128; 
gend.,  42,  N.  Indecl.  adjs.,  159,  I. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  189 ;  455  ff.  In- 
def.  relat.  adverbs,  305,  N.  1.  In- 
def.  subject,  460,  1,  N.  2 ;  518,  2. 

Independent  clauses,  348,  N.  2. 

Index  of  verbs,  p.  383 ;  lyric  metres 
of  Horace,  632. 

Indicative,  196,  I. ;  use,  474  ff.  In- 
die, for  subj.  in  condit.,  511. 

Indiged,  constr.,  410,  V.,  1. 

Indignus,  constr.,  421,  III.;  421,  N. 
3.  Ina/ignus  qul  w.  subj.,  503,  II., 
2.  Indignus  w.  supine,  547, 1. 

Indigus,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  4. 

INDIRECT  DISCOURSE,  522;  moods  in 
prin.  clauses,  523;  in  sub.  clauses, 
524 ;  tenses,  525  ;  persons  and  pro- 
nouns, 526 ;  condit.  sentences,  527. 
Direct  changed  to  indir.,  530 ;  indir. 
to  direct,  531.  Indirect  clauses,  528 
ff. ;  questions,  529 ;  subj.  in,  529, 
I. ;  indie.,  529,  7. 

INDIRECT  OBJECT,  382  ff. ;  w.  direct 
object,  384,  II. 

Indo-European  languages,  638. 

Indu,  u  in,  p.  340,  foot-note  1. 

Indued*  constr.,  377. 

Indulging,  dat,  w,  verbs  of,  885,  II. 


406 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Induo,  constr.,  377  ;  p.  198:  foot-note  1. 

-In&,  nouns  in,  322,  N. ;  im,  587, 1.,  3. 

In/erne,  e  final  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Inferus,  compar.,  163,  3. 

Infidelis  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Infimus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

INFINITIVE,  200,  I. ;  origin,  p.  156, 
foot-note  1 ;  gend.,  42,  N. ;  end- 
ings, 248.  Infin.  in  sequence  of 
tenses,  495,  4.  Infin.  in  relat. 
clauses,  524, 1, 1) ;  after  corn's.,  524, 
1.  2).  Construction  of  innn.,  532 
ff.  Infin.  w.  verbs,  533.  Infin.  of 
purpose,  533,  II.  Infin.  w.  adjs., 
533,  II.,  3;  w.  verb,  nouns,  etc., 
533,  3,  N.  3  ;  w.  preps.,  533,  3,  N. 
4 ;  w.  verbs  w.  ace. ,  534 ;  535.  Sub- 
ject of  infin.,  536.  Histor.  infin., 
536,  1.  Pred.  after  infin.,  536,  2. 
Tenses  of  infin.,  537.  Infin.  as  sub- 
ject, 538.  Infin.  in  special  constr., 
539;  as  pred.,  539,  I.;  as  appos., 
539,  n. ;  in  exclamations,  539,  III. ; 
in  abl.  abs.,  539,  IV. 

InfttiM,  constr.,  380,  2,  3). 

Influence,  dat.  of,  384,  1, 1). 

Infra,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace., 
433 ;  433, 1. 

Ingrdtto,  Is  in,  581,  VIII.,  1. 

Inqratus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Inheritance,  divisions  of,  646,  3,  4). 

-ini,  quant,  of  pen.,  587, 1.,  8. 

Inimlcus,  injucundus,  w.  dat.,  p.  205, 
foot-note  1. 

Injuring,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385, 1. 

Innttor  w.  abl.,  425,  1,  1),  N. 

Inops  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Inquam,  position,  569,  V. 

Inquies,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

Jnsciensw.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Insciusvr.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Inseparable  preps.,  308;  in  compds., 

_  344,  6 ;  quant.,  594,  2. 

Inspergo,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 

Listar,  defective,  134 ;  gen.  w.,  398,  4. 

INSTRUMENTAL  CASE,  367,  3 ;  411,  II. 
Instr.  abl.,  418  ff.  Abl.  of  instru- 

_  ment,  420. 

Instruo,  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 

Insuber,  decl.,  65,  1,  2). 

Insuetus  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3;  p. 
210,  foot-note  3 ;  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Insuper  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  437,  3. 

Integer  w.  gen.,  399,  III.,  1. 

Intensives,  336. 

Inter  in  compds.,  344,  5  ;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Inter  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433, 1. ;  for  gen., 
397,  3,  N.  3;  w.  reciprocal  force, 
448,  N.  Inter  w.  ger.,  p.  315,  foot- 
note 5. 


Interchange  of  vowels  and  consonants. 
28;  29. 

Intercludo,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 

Inter  cm  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 3. 

Inter  diu,  inter  dim,  inter  dum,  304,  I. 
2. 

Inter  ed,  304,  IV..  N.  2. 

Interest,  dat.  of'  384,  1,  2).  Eom. 
computation  of  interest,  646,  3,  3). 

Interest,  constr.,  406,  III.  ;  408. 

Interior,  compar.,  166. 

Interjections^312 ;  556;  557;  w.  voc., 
369,  1 ;  w.  ace.,  381,  N.  2;  w.  dat., 
381,  N.  3.  3) ;  389,  N.  2. 

INTERNAL  OBJECT,  371,  L.  2. 

Interne,  e  final  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

INTERROGATIVE  pronouns,  188 ;  454. 
Inter,  conjs.,  311,  8;  555,  VIII. 
Inter,  sentences,  351.  Inter,  words, 
351,  1.  Double  questions,  353. 
Inter,  sentences  w.  potent,  subj., 
486,  II. ;  in  indir.  disc.,  523,  II.  In- 
direct questions,  528,  2 ;  529, 1. 

Interrogo  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Interval,  abl.  of,  430. 

Intimus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

Intro,  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433, 1. 

Intransitive  verbs,  193,  II. ;  195,  II., 
1 ;  372,  III.,  N.  3 ;  impers.  passive, 
465,  1. 

Intro-  in  compds.,  594,  8. 

Intus  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 

-inns,  adjs.  in,  330, 331 ;  compar.,  169, 
3.  -Inus  or  -Inus  in  adis.,  587,  II., 
5,  w.  N.  2. 

Invadd,  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 

Invicem,  304, 1.,  2. 

Inmtus,  compar.,  167,  2;  special  use 
of  dat.,  387,  N.  3.  Invttus  w.  force 
of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Id,  inter).,  312,  2. 

-io,  verbs  of  Conj.  HI.  in,  217  ff. ; 
quant,  of  stem-syllable,  588.  -Io, 
-id,  suffixes,  320,  H. ;  nouns  in,  324 ; 
326. 

-ion  in  prop,  names,  I  in,  577,  5,  N. 

Ionic  feet,  597,  N.  1 ;  verse,  626 ;  stan- 
za, 631,  XIII. 

-ior  in  comparatives,  162.  -lor,  suf- 
fix, 320.  IL 

-ios,  sufilx,  320,  n. 

Ipse,  decl.,  186,  V. ;  use,  452 ;  w.  abl. 
abs.,  434,  4,  N.  3.  Gen.  of  ipse  w. 
possessive,  398,  3. 

fysus  for  ipse,  p.  73  ^  foot-note  5. 

-ir,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  51,  4. 

Iron  age,  640,  III.,  2. 

Ironical  condition,  507,  3,  N.  1. 

Irony,  637,  V. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


407 


IRRATIONAL  time,  596, 1.  N.  2.    Irrat. 

trochee,  598,  1,  1).    Irrat.  iambus, 

598,  1,  2). 
IRREGULAR  nouns,  127  if. ;  adjs.,  159. 

Irreg.   comparison,  163  if.     Irreg. 

verbs,  289  if. 
Is,  decl.,  186  ;  correlat.,  191 ;  use,  450, 

4,N.  2;  451.    Is— qui,tf>\,  4.    E  in 

ll,  577,  L,  2,  (1).    /in  is.  579,  3. 
-is,  decl.  of  adjs.  in,  62,  IV.,  N.  1 ; 

of  nouns  in,  65,  1 ;   82.     Gend.  of 
'    nouns  in,  105 ;  107.    -Is  in  adverbs, 

304,  L,  3,  1).    -Is  in  ace.  pi.,  62; 

64 ;  67 ;  in  adverbs,  304,  II.,  1.    -Is 

or  -is  final,  580,  III.,  w.  N.  2;  581, 

Islands,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  II.,  2 ; 

constr.,  380,  2,  2) ;  412,  II.,  1 ;  426, 1. 
-issima,  -issimo,  suffixes,  p.  156, 

foot-note  9. 
-issimus,  a,  iim,  in  superlat.,  162; 

p.  157,  foot-note  9. 
-issd,  verbs  in,  336,  N.  2. 
Mac,  305,  V. 
Me,  decl.,  186,  II.;  correlat.,  191 ;  use, 

450. 

Mic,  decl.,  186,  2. 
Mic,  304,  III.,  2  ;  305, 1. 
Mine,  305,  III. 
Mo,  istoc,  304,  II.,  3. 
Muc,  304,  II. ,  3  ;  305,  II. 
-It  in  Plautus  for  -it,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 
Ita,  305,  V.;   ita— si,   507,  3,   N.  2. 

Meaning  of  ita,  551,  N.  2.    Ut-^ita, 

w.  superlat.,  555,  II.,  1.    A  in  ita, 

581,  III.,  3.    Ita  redundant,   636, 

III.,  7. 

Itaque,  310,  4. 
-Has,  nouns  in,  324 ;  325  ;  i  in,  587, 

II.,  4. 

-Her,  i  in,  587,  II.,  4. 
-itia,  nouns  in,  325. 
-Hies,  nouns  in,  325,  N.  1. 
-Him,  *  in,  587,1.,  7. 
-itimus,  adjs.  in,  330,  1. 
-itium,  nouns  in,  324. 
-Ho,  frequentatives  in,  336,  II. 
-Hudo,  nouns  in,  325 ;  i  in,  587,  IV. ,  1. 
-Hus  in  adverbs,  i  in,  p.  345,  foot- 
note 2  ;  587,  II.,  4.    7m  -itus,  587, 

L,  7. 

-iu,  suffix,  320,  II. 
-ium,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  51,  5.    -lum 

in  gen.  pl.;   62;  63;   64;   66;   67. 

Nouns  in  -inm,  324 ;  327. 
-ius,  suffix,  320,  II.    Decl.  of  nouns 


-ivus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5 ;  I  in,  587, 1.,  6. 
-ix,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  95.    -Ix,  decl. 

or  nouns  in.  94;  quant,  of  increm., 

585,  IV.,  1. 


J,  j,  modifications  of  /,  i,  2. 4 ;  sound, 

7 ;  effect  on  quantity  of  preceding 

syllable,  16,  L,  2;  576,  II. :  576,  2; 

interchanged  with  i,  28 ;  dropped, 

36,  4. 

-ja,  suffix,  320, 1. 
Jacio,  spelling  and  pronunciation  of 

compds.,  36,  4. 
Jam,  compds.  of,  w.  present,  467,  2 ; 

w.  imperf.,  469,  2. 
-jans,  suffix,  320, 1. 
Jecur,  decl.,  77,  4. 
Jocus,  plur.  jocl,  joca,  141. 
-J5r,  suffix,  320,  II. 
Joy,  force  of  adjs.  expressing,  443, 

IN.  i. 

Jubar,  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 1.,  4,  (1). 

Jubed,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1;  in 
pass..  534,  1,  N.  1. 

Jucunaus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ; 
w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Judex.  decl.,  59. 

Judicw,  constr.,  410,  II.,  1. 

Jugerum,  deel.,  136,  1.  Jugerum  as 
unit  of  measure,  648,  V. 

Jugum,  quant,  of  syllable  before  j  in 
compds.,  576,  2. 

Julian  calendar,  641. 

Jungo  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1 ;  w. 
abl.,  419, 1. 1). 

Juppiter,  decl.j  66,  3. 

Jurdtus  w.  active  meaning,  257,  N.  2. 

Jus,  decl.,  61. 

Jusjuranaum,  decl.,  126. 

Jusso  forjussero,  240,  4. 

Juvenal,  versification,  630. 

Juvenis,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  3 ;  corn- 
par.,  168,  4. 

Juvo  w.  accus.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 

Juxtd  w.  accus.,  433. 


K  seldom  used,  2,  6. 

-ka,  suffix.  320, 1. 

Karthdgd,  decl.,  66,  4. 

Kindred  words  near  each  other,  563. 

Knowing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1., 

1;  535, 1,1   (2). 
Knowledge,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399,  L, 

2 :  p.  315,  foot-note  2 ;  w.  force  of 

adverbs,  443,  N.  1. 


408 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


L,  steins  in.  decl.,  60 ;  nouns  in,  decl., 
75;  gend.,  Ill;  112.  Quant,  of 
finalsyllables  in  I,  579,  2  ;  580,  II. 

-la,  la,  suffixes,  320.  Nouns  in  -la, 
321. 

Labials,  3,  II. ;  3,  N.  1,  L,  3.  Labial 
stems,  57. 

Lacer,  decl.,  150,  N.,  1). 

Lacrimd  w.  accus.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Lacus,  decl.,  117, 1,  2). 

Laedo  w.  accus.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 

Laetus  w.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Laeva,  constr.,  425,  2. 

Lampas,  decl.,  68. 

Language,  Latin,  638. 

Lapis,  decl.,  58. 

Ldr,  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 1.,  4,  (1). 

Lassus  not  compared,  169,  4. 

LATIN  period,  573.  Lat.  lang.  and 
literature,  638.  Early  Latin,  639. 
Lat.  authors,  640. 

Learning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 

Leaving,  verbs  of,  w.  two  dats.,  390, 

N.  1,  2). 

Lengthening  of  vowels,  20. 
-lens,  -lentus,  adjs.  in,  328. 
Led,  decl.,  60. 

Lepus,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 
Lesser  Ionic,  597,  N. ;  Archilochian, 

617,  N.;    Asclepiadean,  628,  IV.; 

Sapphic,    628,   VI. ;    Alcaic,    628, 

Letters,  classification,  3  ;  sounds,  5  if. 
Names  of  letters  indecl.,  128,  1. 
Tenses  in  letters,  472,  1. 

-leus,  nouns  in,  321,  N. 

Levo,  constr. ,  p.  217,  foot-note  5 ;  p. 
219,  foot-note  1. 

Lex,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

-li,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Lioens  w.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Liber,  Bacchus,  liberi,  decl.,  51,  4. 
I/iber,  era,  erum,  149. 

Llbero,  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5 ;  p. 
219,  foot-note  1. 

Libra,  648, 1. ;  divisions,  648,  L,  1. 

Libra,  constr.,  425,  2,  N.  1. 

Liceo  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Licet,  311,  4 ;  w.  subj.,  515,  III.  Ple- 
onasm w.  licet,  636,  III.,  9. 

Liger,  decl.,  66,  III.,  1. 

Ligm  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 3. 

Likeness,  dat.-  w.  adis.  of,  391,  I. : 
391,  II.,  4. 

Limit,  accus.  of,  380. 

Linter,  decl.,  65, 1,  2), 


Liqui,  i  in,  590, 1. 

Liquid  measure,  Kom.,  648,  III. 

Liquids,  3,  II.,  4;  developing  vowels, 
29,  N.  Liquid  stems,  60. 

Lis,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  quant, 
of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

-lis,  adjs.  in,  333. 

Literature,  Lat.,  638. 

Litotes,  63_7,  VIII. 

Litter  a*  litter  ae.  132.  Litter  as  dare. 
385, 1,  N. 

Litum,  i  in,  590, 1. 

-lo,  suffix,  320,  II. 

LOCATIVE,  45,  2;  48,  4;  51,  8:  66,  4; 
120,  N.  Locatives  as  adverbs,  304, 
III.  Abl.w.  locat.,363,4,  2).  Syn- 
tax of  locat.,  367,  2;  411,  III. ;  425, 
H. ;  426,  2.  Locat.  abl.,  425,  ff. 

Loco,  constr.,  380,  N. 

Lociiples,  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 
III,  3. 

Locus,  plur..  141.  Loco,  constr.,  415, 
II.,  N.  Loco,  locus,  constr.,  425,  2. 

Logaoedic  verse,  627  n. 

Long  measure,  Kom.,  648,  IV. 

Long  syllables,  575.  Long  stem-syl- 
lables in  primitives,  595.  Final 
long  vowel  shortened  in  hiatus,  608, 

Longlnquus,  superlat.  wanting,  168,  3. 

Longius  without  quam,  417,  1,  N.  2. 

-Is,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  90. 

Luctor  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Ludicer,  defect.,  159,  II. 

Ludus,  ludlj  132. 

Lues,  defective,  134. 

-lus,  -lum,  nouns  in,  321 ;  adjs.,  332. 

Lux,  without  gen.  plur.,  133, 5 ;  quant. 

of  increm.,  585,  V.,  2. 
Lycurgides,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 
Lynx,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  3. 
Lyric  metres  of  Horace,  631 ;  index, 

632. 

H 

M  changed  to  n*  33,  4 ;  assimilated  to 
s,  34,  1,  N. ;  developing^?,  34, 1,  N. 
Stems  in  m,  60.  Prepositions  in  m, 
p.  149,  foot-note  2.  Quant,  of  final 
syllables  in  m,  579,  2 ;  580,  II.  M 
final  elided,  608, 1. 

-ma,  -ma,  suffixes,  320. 

Maered,  constr.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Magis  in  comparison,  170 ;  444,  2, 
notes  1  and  2.  Noti  magis — quam, 
555,  II.,  1. 

Magnus  compared,  165.  Mdgni, 
constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 

Major  in  expressions  of  age,  p.  823, 
foot-note  4. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


409 


Making,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  373. 

Male  compared,  306,  2.  Dat.  w. 
compds.  of  male,  384, 4,  N.  1.  E  in 
male,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Mold,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1 ;  499, 
2 ;  p.  310,  foot-note  1.  Is  in  mavis, 
58lf  VIII.,  3,  N. 

Mains,  compar.,  165. 

-man,  sufhx,  320,  I. 

Manifestus  w.  gen., p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Manner,  adverbs  of,  305,  H.  2, 3).  Abl. 
of  manner,  419,  III.  Manner  ex- 
pressed by  particip.,  549, 1. 

Manus,  gend.,  118. 

Mare.  decl.,  63 ;  63,  2.  Marl,  constr., 
425,  2. 

Margarita,  plur.,  142. 

Martial,  metres,  633,  II. 

Mas,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  quant, 
ofincrem.,  585,  I.,  4,  (2). 

Masculine  caesura,  611,  N. 

Mastery,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399, 1.,  3 ; 
verbs  of,  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3. 

Material  expressed  by  abl.,  415.  Ma- 
terial nouns,  39,  2,  3)  ;  plur.,  130,  2. 

Maturus,  compar.,  163,  1,  N. 

Mdtutlnus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  5. 

Mdxime  in  adverbial  comparison,  170. 
k  Mdximl,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 

Means,  abl.  of,  418 ;  420.  Means  ex- 
pressed by  particip.,  549,  1. 

Measure  of  difference,  abl.  of,  417,  2. 
Koman  measures,  646 ;  648. 

Mecastor,  inter j.,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 

Med  for  me,  184,  5. 

Medeor  w.  dat.,  385,  II.,  N.  3. 

Medial  vowels,  3, 1.,  2. 

Medius  designating  part,  440,  N.  2. 

Medius^  fidius,  mehercule,  mehercules, 
interj.,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 

Mel,  defect.,  133,  4,  N. 

Melius  w.  indicat.,  475,  5. 

Melos,  decl.,  68,  6. 

Members  of  complex  sentences,  348, 
N.  1. 

Meme  for  me,  184,  4. 

Meminl  w.  gen.,  406,  II. ;  w.  ace., 
407  ;  w.  pres.  infin.,  537, 1. 

Memor,  decl.,  158.  Memor  w.  gen., 
p.  210,  foot-note  3.  Quant,  of  in- 
crem.  ofmemor,  585,  II.,  3. 

Memorabilia  w.  sup.,  547,  1. 

-men,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  nouns  in,  327. 

Mendlcus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Mensa,  decl.,  48. 

Mensis.  decl..  p.  36,  foot-note  3. 

-mento,  suffix,  p.  157,  foot-note  1. 

-mentum,  nouns  in,  327. 

Mepte  for  me,  184t  5. 

Mercies,  quant,  ofincrem.,  585,  III.,  3. 


Merldi'es,  gend.,  123;  defect.,  130, 1, 4). 

Messis,  decl.,  62,  III.,  1. 

-met,  forms  in,  184,  3 ;  185,  N.  2. 

Metaphor,  637,  II. 

Metathesis,  635,  5. 

Metonymy,  637,  HI. 

Metre,  601,  N.  3. 

Metrical  equivalents,  598.  Metr.  name 
of  verse,  603. 

Metud,  constr.,  385,  1;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 3. 

Meus,  decl.,  185,  N.  1. 

Ml  for  miU,  184. 

Middle  voice,  465. 

Miles,  decl.,  58. 

Militia,  decl.,  48,  4 ;  constr.,  426,  2. 

Mile,  decl.,  159,  I. ;  use,  174, 4;  178. 
Mllia  masc.  by  synesis,  461,  2. 

Million  sesterces,  how  denoted,  647, 

-min,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-mini  as  pers.  end.,  p.  118,  foot-note  3. 

Minimi,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 

-mind  in  imperat.,  240.  5. 

Minor  caesura,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 

Minor,  minus,  without  quam,  417,  N. 
2.  Mindris,  constr.,  405 ;  p.  213, 
foot-note  2. 

Minus,  minime,  as  negatives,  552,  3. 
Non,  minus — quam,  555,  II.,  1. 

Mlrificus,  compar.,  164,  N. 

Mlror  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1 ;  w. 
gen.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5 ;  p.  310, 
foot-note  2. 

Mlrum  w.  quantum/,  305,  N.  4. 

Mir  us  not  compared,  169,  4. 

Mis  for  mel.  184,  5. 

Misceo  w.  dat.,  385,  3 ;  p.  201,  foot- 
note 1 ;  w.  ace.  and  dat.,  p.  201, 
foot-note  2 ;  w.  abl.,  419,  1, 1),  (2). 

Miser,  decl.,  150,  N. 

Misereor,  miserescd,  w.  gen.,  406.  Mis- 
erescit,  miseretur,  constr.,  410,  IV., 
N.I. 

Miseret,  constr.,  409,  III. 

Mitto  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 

-mo,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Moderor,  constr..  385,  1. 

Modifiers,  357  ff.  Position  of  modi- 
fiers, of  nouns,  565;  adjs.,  566; 
verbs,  567 ;  adverbs,  568. 

Modius,  648,  II. 

Modo,  311,  3.  Modo,  modo  ne,  w. 
sub],  of  desire,  483,  6.  Modo  w. 
subj.  hi  condit,  513, 1.  Non  modo 
— sed  etiam  (verurn  etiam),  554,  I., 
5.  O  final  in  modo  and  compds. ,  581 , 

Modus,  circumlocutions  w.,  636,  III., 
10. 


410 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Molestus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Molossus,  633.  111.,  1,  N. 

-mdn,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Moneo,  constr.,  374,  2 ;  p.  193,  foot- 
note 3  ;  410, 1.,  2 ;  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 

Money, JRoman,  646  ff. 

-znonia,    monio,  suffixes,  p.  157, 

foot-note  1 ;  moma,  nouns  in,  327. 
monium,  nouns  in,  327. 

Monocolon,  p.  352,  foot-note  3. 

Monometer,  603,  N .  2. 

Monosyllabic  preps,  repeated,  636, 
III.,  6. 

Monosyllables,  quant.,  579.  Mono- 
syllables at  end  of  line,  613,  N.  2. 

Months,  Koman,  641;  642,  III.,  2; 
names  of,  originally  adjs.,  p.  36, 
foot-note  2;  gender,  42,  I.,  2; 
names  of,  in  -her,  decl.,  65,  1,1). 

MOODS,  196.  Mood  signs,  244  ff.  In- 
die., 466  ff.  Subj.,  477  ff. ;  490  ff. 
Imperat.,  487  ff.  Moods  in  subord. 
clauses,  490  ff. ;  in  condit.  sentences, 
506  ff. ;  in  concess.  clauses,  514  ff. ; 
in  causal  clauses,  516  ff. ;  in  temp, 
clauses,  518  ff.  ;  in  indir.  disc., 
523  ff. ;  in  indir.  clauses,  529.  In- 
finit.,  532  ff. 

Morae  or  times,  597. 

Mos,  mores,  132. 

Motion  to,  how  expressed,  384,  3,  1) ; 
385,  4,  1) ;  386,  3. 

Moved  w.  abl.,  414,  II. ;  w.  subj.,  p. 
274,  foot-note  2. 

•ins,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  88. 

Mulciler,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

Multl,  indef.  num.,  175,  N.  3. 

Multimodis,  304,  II.,  1,  N. 

Multiplication,  how  expressed,  174,  2, 
2). 

Multiplicatives,  173, 1. 

Multitude  w.  plur.  verb,  461, 1. 

MuUus,  compar.,  165 ;  plur.,  175,  N.  3. 

Mus,  decl.,  64 ;  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 

Mutes,  3,  II.,  5. 

Muto,  constr.,  422,  N.  2. 


N  assimilated  to  I,  34,  2 ;  to  m,  34, 
3 ;  dropped,  36,  3,  S.  3 ;  36,  5,  3). 
Stems  in  n.  60.  Decl.  of  nouns  in 
n,  76  ;  gend.,  113.  Quant,  of  final 
syllables  in  n,  580,  II.,  w.  notes  1 
and  2.w 

-na,  -na,  suffixes,  320. 

Nam,  310, 5 ;  w.  emphasis,  351,  4,  N.  1. 

Name,  dat.  of,  387,  N.  1 ;  gen.  of,  387, 
N.  2.  Name  of  verse,  603. 

NAMES,  Eoman,  331,  N.  3 ;  439, 4,  N. ; 


649.  Names  of  towns,  constr.,  380, 
II.  ;  412,  II.  ;  425,  II.  ;  428. 

Namque,  310,  5  ;  554,  V.,  2. 

Nasals,  3,  II.,  2;  developing  vowels, 
29,  N. 

Natalie,  natales,  132. 

Natusv.  abl.,  415,  II. 

Naud,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 

Navis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Nd  shortens  preceding  vowel,  p.  37, 
foot-note  2. 

-Ne,  interrog.  particle,  310,  2,  N.  ;  311, 
8  ;  in  questions,  351,  1  and  2  ;  in 
double  questions,  353,  1  :  in  indir. 
questions,  529,  1  and  3.  JPosition  of 
-ne,  569,  III.,  4.  E  elided  before 
consonant,  608,  1.,  N.  2. 

Ne,  311,  4  and  5  ;  552  ;  w.  subj.  of 
desire,  483,  3  ;  489,  3  ;  w.  imperat., 
488  ;  w.  subj.  of  purpose,  497.  II.  ; 

498,  III.,  notes  1  and  2;   omitted, 

499,  2.    Ni  in  concessions,  515,  III. 
Ne  non,  552,  1.    Ne—qmdem,55S, 

2  ;  569,  in.,  2.    Ne  or  ne  as  prefix, 
594,  2. 

-ne,  nouns  in,  322,  N. 

Nearness,  dat.  w.  adjs.  of,  391,  I.  ; 

gen.,  391,  4. 
Me,  310,  1  ;  554,  1..  2.    Nee—  nee  (ne- 

quej,  nec—et  (que),  et  —  nee,  554,  1.,  5. 

Position  of  nee  in  poetry,  569.  III.. 

N.    E  in  nee.  579,  3. 
Necessdrius  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
Necessary,  dat.  w.   adjs.   signifying, 

391,  1. 

Necesse  est,  constr.,  502,  1. 
Necne,  310,  2,  N.  ;  311,  8  ;  353,  2,  N. 

3  ;  529,  3,  2). 

Nectar,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  I.,  4, 

Necto  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 
Nedum  w.  subj.,  483,  3,  N.  ;  e  in,  594, 

2,  N.  2. 

Needing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  414,  1. 
Nlfasj  defect.,  134;  w.  sup.,  547,  1. 
Negatives,  552  ; 


w.   subj.  of  desire, 
,  3.    Two  neg.,  553.    Gen.  neg., 

553,  1  and  2.    Position  of  neg.,  569, 

IV.,  1. 
Nemd,  use,  457,  1  ;  followed  by  qum, 

p.  278,  foot-note  3.    E  in  nemo,  594, 

2,  N.  2. 

Nlnu,  u  in,  p.  340,  foot-note  1. 
Nepos,  decl.,  58. 
Nequam    indecl.,  159,    I.  ;  compar., 

165,  N.  2  ;  e  in,  594,  2,  N.  2. 
Nequdquam,  I  in,  594,  2,  N.  2. 
Neque,  310,  1  ;  554,  1.,  2.  Neque—ne- 

qite,  553,  2;  554,  I.,  5.    Neque—  -el, 

et—neque,  554,  I.,  5, 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


411 


Nt,—quidem,  553,  2;  569,  III.,  2. 

Nequlquam,  nlquitia,  I  in,  594,  2,  N. 
2. 

Nerlis,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  1. 

Nescw  quis,  qui,  191,  N. ;  455,  2.  JV^- 
smj  w.  interrog.  adv.,  305,  N.  3.  Ne- 
scid  quis.  quomodo,  w.  indie.,  529,  5, 
3).  Nescw  an,  529,  3,  N.  2. 

Nescius  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Neu,  see  Neve. 

-neus,  adjs.  in,  329. 

Neuter,  decl.,  151, 1. 

NEUTER  nom.,  aec.?  and  voc.  pi.,  46,  2, 
1).  Neuter  by  signification,  42,  N. ; 
by  ending,  Decl.  II. ,  53  ;  Decl.  III., 
Ill ;  Decl.  IV.,  118.  Neuter  pron. 
or  adj.,  as  cognate  ace.,  371,  II. ;  375 ; 
w.  part,  gen.,  397,  3 ;  in  pred.,  438, 
4.  0  in  mcrem.  of  neut.;  585,  II.,  1. 

Neve,  neu,  311,  5;  w.  subj.  of  desire, 
483,  3 ;  w.  imperat. ,  488 ;' w.  subj.  of 
purpose,  _497,  1,  N.  Neve — neve, 
552,  2.  JE'm  neve,  594,  2,  N.  2. 

Nex,  defect.,  133,  5. 

Nf  lengthens  preceding  vowel,  16,  N. 
2. 

^,311,  3;  in  condit.,  507  ff.  Nl  = 
'but,'  'except,'  507,  3,  N.  3.  Nl 
for  ne,  552,  1. 

-ni,  suffix,  320. 

Night,  Eom.  division  of,  645 ;  645, 1. 

Nihil,  defect.,  134;  for  non,  457,  3. 
Nihil  aliud  nisi,  nihil  aliud  quam, 
555,  III.,  1. 

Nihili,  constr.,  404,  N.  2. 

Nimis  w.  genit.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3. 

Nimium  quantum,  305,  N.  4. 

Nisi,  311,  3 ;  in  condit..  507  if.  Nisi 
=  '  but,'  '  except,'  507,  3,  N.  3 :  = 
'except,'  'than,'  555,  III.,  1.  Nisi 
si,  507,  3,  N.  4.  Msi  quod,  nihil 
aliud  nisi,  555,  III.,  1.  /final  in 
nisi,  581,  I.,  1. 

Nttor,  constr.,  425, 1, 1),  N. ;  498,  II., 
N.  1. 

Nix,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  66;  w. 
short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot-note  2. 

-no,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Nolo,  constr.,  499,  2 ;  p.  310,  foot-note 

1.  Noll,  nolite,  in  prohibitions,  489, 
1).    /  in  nolite,  etc.,  586,  III.,  4. 

Nomen  w.  dat.,  387,  N.  1 ;  w.  gen., 
387,  N.  2.  Nomine  w.  gen.  of  crime, 
410,  II.,  1.  Nomen  in  name  of  a 
Eom.  citizen,  649. 

NOMINATIVE  neut.  pi.  in  adjs.,  158,  1. 
Syntax  of  nom.,  368 ;  two  nom.,  373, 

2.  Nom.  for  voc.,  369,  2.     Nom.  in 
exclamations,  381,  N.  3,  2).     -Es  in 
nom,  sing.,  581,  VI.,  1;   -zs,  581, 


VIII.,  2 ;  -us,  581,  IX.,  1 ;  in  plur., 
581,  IX.,  2. 

Non,  p.  145,  foot-note  2;  552.  Non 
modo  non,  non  solum  non,  552,  2. 
Non  solum  (non  modo  or  non  tan- 
turn) — sed  etiam  ( verum  etiam),  554, 
I.j  5.  Non  minus — quam,  non  ma- 
gis — quam,  555  j  II.,  1.  Non  quo, 
quod,  quln,  qma,  w.  subj.,  516,  2. 
Non  w.  gen.  negat.,  553,  1.  Posi- 
tion of  non,  569,  IV. 

Nondum,  555, 1.,  1. 

Nones,  642, 1.,  2. 

Nonne,  311,  8 ;  351, 1  and  2. 

Nos  for  ego,  nosier  for  meus,  446,  N.  2. 

Nostrds,  decl.,  185,  N.  3. 

Nostri,  nostrum,  446,  N.  3. 

Notus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

NOUNS,  etymol.,  39  ff. ;  gend.,  40  ff. ; 
pers.  and  num.,  44 ;  cases,  45  ;  decl., 
46 ff.;  defect.,  122;  129 ff.;  indecl., 
128 ;  heteroclites,  135  ff. ;  hetero- 
geneous, 141  ff.  Syntax,  362  ff. : 
agreement,  362  ff. ;  general  view  of 
cases,  365  ff. ;  nom.,  368 ,'  voc.,  369 ; 
ace.,  370  ff. ;  dat.,  382  ff. ;  gen.,  393 
ff. ;  abl..  367 ;  411  ff. ;  w.  preps., 
432  ff.  Nouns  as  adjs. ,  441 ,  3.  Po- 
sition of  modifiers  of  nouns,  565. 

Novus,  compar.,  167,  2. 

Nox,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 

Noxius  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ; 
w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

-ns,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  65,  3 ;  90.  Ns 
lengthens  preceding  vowel,  16, 
N.  2. 

Nt  dropped,  p.  19,  foot-note  9  ;  short- 
ens preceding  vowel,  p.  37,  foot- 
note 2. 

-nil,  suffix,  320. 

Nublcula,  p.  159,  foot-note  1. 

Nubes,  decl.,  62. 

Nubow.  dat.,  385,  N.  3. 

Nudd,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Nullus,  decl.,  151, 1 :  for  Eng.  adverb, 
443,  N.  1 ;  use,  457,  2 ;  for  non,  457, 
3.  Nullus  followed  by  quln,  p.  278, 
foot-note  3. 

Num,  310,  2,  N. ;  311,  8 ;  351,  1 ;  in 
indir.  quest.^  529,  II.,  1,  N.  3. 

-num,  nouns  in,  327. 

Number,  44 ;  in  verbs,  199.  Gen.  in 
descriptions  of  number,  419.  2,  1). 

NUMERALS,  171  ff. ;  adjs.,  172 if. ;  decl., 
175  ff. ;  symbols,  180 ;  adverbs,  181 ; 
in  compounding  numbers,  174,  3. 
Numerals  w.  gen.,  397,  2.  Numer- 
als in  dates,  642,  III.,  I. 

Nummus,  647. 

Nunc,  304, 1.,  4;  305,  IV. 


412 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Nuntior,  constr.,  534,  N.  1,  (2). 
Nuper,  304,  IV.,  N.  2 ;  compar.,  306, 4. 
-nus,  adjs.  in,  329. 
Nusquam  w.  gen.,  397,  4. 


0,  6,  sound,  5 ;  10 ;  11.  O  final  short- 
ened, 21,  2,  3).  <9-nouns,  51.  Decl. 
of  nouns  in  6,  o,  60,  4 ;  72 ;  quant, 
of  increm.,  585,  II.,  5,  (2);  gend., 
99 ;  100.  Num.  adverbs  in  -o,  181, 
N.  2.  Origin  of  o  final  in  verbs,  p. 
118,  foot-note  5.  Adverbs  in  -o, 
304,  II.,  1  and  2.  Superlat.  adverbs 
in  -o,  306,  6.  0  or  o,  final,  580, 1. ; 
581,  II. ;  in  increm.  of  decl.,  585 ; 
585,  H.  •  conj.,  586.  0,  inter).,  812, 
1,  2,  and  5  ;  w.  ace.,  381,  N.  2.  6 
si  w.  subj.  of  desire,  483,  1.  0  in 
hiatus,  608,  II.,  1. 

-O,  -6,  suffixes,  320,  II.  Nouns  in  -6, 
326,  2. 

Ob  in  compds.,  344,  5 ;  in  compds. 
w.  dat.,  386.  Ob  w.  ace.,  433; 
433, 1. ;  w.  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  5. 

Obeying,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385, 1. 

Obiter,  304,  I.,  2. 

OBJECT,  direct,  371 ;  external,  371, 1.. 
1  ;  internal,  371,  I.,  2.  Object 
omitted,  371,  in.,  N.  4.  Infin.  or 
clause  as  object,  371,  IV. ;  540,  N. 
Indir.  object,  382  ff.  Object  clauses 
of  purpose,  498 ;  of  result,  501,  II. 

Objective  compds.,  343,  II.  Object, 
gen.,  396,  IIL 

Oblique  cases,  45, 1 ;  use  of,  370  ff. 

Obllviscor  w.  gen.,  406,  II. :  w.  ace., 
407. 

Oboediens  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  3. 

Obviam,  304, I.,  2. 

Occisit  ror  occlderit,  240,  4. 

Occupatio,  p.  373,  foot-note  2. 

Odor,  compar.,  166. 

Octo,  o  final  in,  581,  IV.,  2. 

Oe,  sound,  6 ;  12. 

Oedipus,  u  in,  581,  IX.,  3,  N. 

Offendo,  constr.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 

gfcj,  interj.,  312,  3 ;  6  in,  577,  I.,  4;  e 
in,  581,  IV.,  4.  ' 

Oi,  sound,  6, 1 ;  12, 1. 

-ois,  o  in,  587, 1.,  3  ;  577,  5,  N. 

-oius  in  prop,  names,  o  in,  577,  5, 
N. 

-ola,  o  in,  587,  II.,  3. 

-olentus,  o  in,  587,  IV.,  1. 

Oleo  w.  ace..  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Ollus,  olle,  tor  ille,  p.  73,  foot-note  1, 
(2). 

-olum.  -olus,  o  in,  587,  II.,  3. 


Omission  of  consonants,  36 ;  of  oro  in 

adjurations,  569,  II.,  3. 
Omnis,  gen.  of,  w.  possessives,  398, 3. 
-on,  -on,  suffixes,  320,  II-   -on  in 

Greek  gen.  plur.,  68,  4.     Quant,  of 

increm.  of  nouns  in  -on.  585,  II.,  5, 

(2). 

-pna,  o  in,  587, 1.,  5. 
-one  in  patronymics,  322.  N. ;  o  in. 

587,1.,  3. 

Onero,  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 
-5nl,  o  in,  587,  I.,  8. 
Onomatopoeia,  637,  XL,  5. 
-onus,  o  in,  587, 1.,  5. 
Open  vowel,  3, 1.,  1. 
Opera,  operae,  132.     Operani  do  w. 

subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
Oplmus,  superlat.  wanting,  168,  3. 
Oportet,  constr.,  502,  1 ;  537,  1. 
Opposing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  505,  II. 
Ops,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  3 ;  133,  1. 
Optative  in  fut.  and  in  pres.  subj.,  p. 

117,  foot-note  4.   Optat.  subj . ,  484, 1. 
Optimdtes,  decl.,  64,  2,  4). 
Optimus  w.  supine,  547, 1. 
Opto,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 
Opus, '  work,'  decl.,  61.   Opus*1  need,' 

defect.,  134;  constr.,  414,  IV. ;  w. 

sup.,  547,  1.      Opus  est  w.  subj., 
,,502,  1. 
-or,  -or,  suffixes,  320,  II.    Nouns  in 

-or,  327.     0  shortened  in  -or,  21,  2, 

2).     Gen.  of  nouns  in  -or,  99, 101. 

-Or  in  Plautus  for  -or,  580,  III.,  N. 

2.     Quant,  of  increm.  of  nouns  in 
_  -or,  585,  II.,  5,  (1). 
CJRATiS    OBLIQUA,   see  Indirect  Dis- 
course.   OratiO  recta,  522,  1. 
Orbis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 
Orbo,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 
Order  of  vowels  in  strength,  22. 
Ordinal  numbers,  172;  174;  decl.,  179. 
-orius,  o  in,  587,  III.,  1. 
Orno,  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 
Oro  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2 ;  w.  subj.,  p. 

274,  foot-note  1.      Oro  omitted  in 

adjurations,  569,  II.,  3. 
Orp/ieus,  decl.,  68. 
Orthography,  1, 1. ;  2  ff. 
Ortusw.  abl.,415,  II. 
-orus,  compar.  of  adjs.  in,  169,  3. 
_  0  in  -orus,  587,  I.,  6. 
Os,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  1. 
Os,  ossis,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  o 

in,  579.  3. 
-os,  suffix,  320,  II.      Sound  of  -os, 

11, 1.     Greek  neuters  in  -os,  68,  6. 

Decl.  of  nouns  in  -os,  -os,  8_3 ;  133, 

4,  N. ;   gend.,  99 ;   102.      Os  or  os 

final,  580,  III. ;  581,  VII. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


413 


Ossua,  p.  50,  foot-note  1. 

Ostrea,  plur.,  142. 

-osus,  adjs.  in,  328 ;  o  in,  587, 1.,  6. 

-otis,  <5in,  587,  L,  3. 

-otus,  o  in,  587,  L,  7. 

Ovid,  versification,  630. 

OwingLconstr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1.,  1. 

-ox,  -ox,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  96. 

Oxymoron,  637,  XI.,  5. 


P  changed  to  b,  33,  2 ;  to  m,  33,  3,  N. ; 
developed  by  m,  34, 1,  IN. 

Paene  w.  perf.  ind.,  471,  2;  w.  hist, 
tenses  of  indie.,  511,  1,  N.  4. 

Paenitet,  constr.,  409,  III. ;  410,  IV. 

Palam  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 

Palatals,  3,  II. ,  N.  1, 1..  1. 

Palus  foTvalus,  581,  IX.,  1,  N. 

Paluster,decl.,  153,  N.  1,  1). 

Panthus,  voc.,  54,  K.  4. 

Papae,  inter].,  312,  2. 

P^,  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1  and 
3;  quant,  of  increra.,  585, 1.,  4,  (1). 

Paraleipsis,  637,  XL,  2. 

Parasitic  u,  5,  4. 

Pardoning,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 

Parlns,  gen.  plur.,  p.  38,  foot-note  2. 

Parentage  expressed  by  abl..  415. 

Parenthetical  clauses  in  indir.  disc., 
524,  2, 1) ;  in  indir.  clauses,  529,  II., 
N.  1,  2). 

Paries,  es  in,  581,  VI.,  1. 

Paris,  decl.,  68. 

Paroemiac  verse,  604,  N.  2. 

Paronomasia,  637,  XL,  7. 

Pars,  ace.,  64,  N.  2.  Pars, partis,  132. 
Pars  in  fractions,  174,  1.  Parte, 
partibus,  constr.,  425,  2.  Pars  w. 
plur.  verb,  461,  1. 

Particeps  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Participation,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399, 1., 
3 ;  w.  verbs  of,  410,  V.,  3. 

PARTICIPLES,  200,  I V . ;  endings,  248. 
Particip.  in  seq.  of  tenses,  495,  IV. 
Agreement  of  particip.,  438, 1 ;  460, 
1.  Particip.  for  infin^  535,  I.,  4. 
Use  of  particip.,  548  fr. ;  denoting 
time,  cause,  manner,  means,  549, 1 ; 
condit.,  concess.,  549,  2;  purpose, 
549,  3 ;  for  relat.  clause,  549,  4 ;  for 
prin.  clause  2  549,  5 ;  w.  negat.,  549, 
JN".  1.  Particip.  rendered  by  noun, 
549,  N.  2. 

PARTICLES,  302  ff. ;  adverbs,  303  if. ; 
preps.,  307;  308;  conjs.,  309  ff . ; 
interjections,  312.  Syntax  of  parti- 
cles, 551  ff. ;  adverbs,  551  ff.  In- 


terrog.  particles,  pL  152,  foot-note  3 ; 
351,  1 ;  555,  8.  -A  in  particles,  581, 
III.,  3. 

Partim,  304,  L,  1;  w.  gen.,  p.  209, 
foot-note  3.  Partim — partim  for 
pars— pars,  461,  5. 

Partitive  apposition,  364.  Part,  gen., 
396,  IV.;  397. 

Parts  of  speech,  38. 

Partus,  decl.,  117,  1,  2). 

Parum  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3. 

Parvus,  compar.,  165.  Parm,  constr., 
p.  213,  foot-note  2. 

Passer,  decl.,  60. 

PASSIVE  VOICE,  195,  II. ;  impers.,  195, 
II.,  1.  Passive  constr.,  464;  534, 
1.  Passive  like  middle,  465. 

Passus,  648,  IV.,  N. 

Pastor,  pater,  decl.,  60. 

Paterfamilias,  decl.,  126. 

Patior,  constr.,  p.  310,  N.  1. 

Patrials,  331,  N.  1 ;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  li,  5. 

Patronymics,  322. 

Panel,  defect.,  159,  II. 

Pause,  caesural,  602. 

Pax,  defect.,  133,  5. 

Pecu,  decl.,  p.  50,  foot-note  1. 

PECULIARITIES,  in  conjugat.,  235  ff . ; 
in  seq.  of  tenses,  495  ;  in  expressions 
of  purpose^  499 ;  of  result,  502.  Pe- 
culiarities in  Kom.  calendar,  642. 

Pecus  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 3. 

Pedester,  decl.,  153,  N.  1, 1). 

Pelagus,  decl.,  51,  7 ;  gend.,  53,  2. 

Penalty,  how  expressed,  410,  III. 

Penates,  decl.,  64,  2,  4). 

Penes  w.  ace.,  433 ;  es  in,  581,  VI.,  2. 

Peninsulas,  constr.  of  names  of,  380, 
II.,  2,  2).' 

Pentameter,  603,  N.  2 ;  dactylic,  614. 

Penthemimeral  caesura,  p.  356,  foot- 
note 4. 

Penthemirneris,  597,  N.  2. 

Penus,  gend.,  118,  (2). 

Per  in  compds.,  170,  1;  344,  5;  w. 
ace.,  372.  Per  w.  ace.,  433  ;  433, 1. ; 
denoting  agency,  415,  L,  1,  N.  1 ; 
manner  ,41 9,  III.,  N.  3.  Per  si,  452, 
1,  N.  Position  of  per  in  adjura- 
tions, 569,  II.,  3.  E  in  per,  579,  3. 

Perceiving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  535,  I. 

Percenter  \v.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

PERFECT  TENSE,  197  ;  198.  Perf.  sys- 
tem, 222,  II.  Perfect  stems,  252  ff. 
Perf.  wanting,  262,  N.  2  ;  272,  N.  2 ; 
282;  284,  N.  2.  Perf.  w.  prcs. 
meaning,  297, 1. ,  2.  Syntax  of  perf. 
indie.,  471 ;  subj.,  481 ;  in  subj.  of 


414 


INDEX  OF  SITBJECT& 


desire.  483,  2 ;  in  potent,  subj.,  485, 
N.  1 ;  in  prohibitions,  489,  3).  Perf. 
in  seq.  of  tenses,  492 ;  493 ;  495 ; 
496,  II.  Perf.  in  condition,  507, 
II. ;  509 ;  511,  1 ;  511,  2,  N. ;  513, 
N.  1. ;  in  concess.,  515,  II.,  2 ;  in 
temp,  clauses,  518,  N.  1 ;  520,  N. .  1 ; 
in  indir.  disc.,  525,  1 ;  527,  II. ;  527, 
III.,  N.  2.  Perf.  infin.,  537.  Perf. 
particip.,  550;  rendered  by  verbal 
noun,  549, 3,  N.  2.  -Is  in  perf.  subj . , 
581,  VIII. ,  5.  Quant,  of  pen.  of 
dissyllabic  perfects,  590.  Quant,  of 
first  two  syllables  of  trisyllabic  re- 
duplicated perfects,  591. 

Perkibeor,  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Pericles,  decl.,  68. 

Periculum  est  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot- 
note 3. 

Period,  Lat.,  573.  Periods  of  Lat. 
literature,  640. 

Periphrastic  conjugat.,  233;  234;  use, 
466,  N.;  p.  261,  foot-note  4 ;  476, 1 ; 
in  condit.  sentences,  511,  2.  Peri- 
phrast.  fut.  infin.,  537,  3. 

Perltus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 
of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  3. 

Permisceo  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Perniciosus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Person  of  nouns,  44 ;  verbs,  199  ;  in 
indir.  disc.,  526. 

PERSONAL  pron.,  183, 1;  184;  use,  446; 
reflexive  use,  448 ;  449.  Pers.  end- 
ings of  verbs,  247.  Pers.  constr.  in 
indir.  questions,  529,  6 ;  in  pass, 
voice,  534.  1. 

Personification,  637,  IX. 

Persuading,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 

Pertaedet,  pertaesum  est,  constr.,  410, 
IV.,  notes  1  and  3. 

Pes,  es  in  compds.,  581,  VI.,  1.  Pes 
as  unit  of  measure,  648,  IV. 

Peto,  constr.,  374,  2,  N.  4. 

Phalaecian  verse,  629, 1. 

Pherecratic  verse,  628,  II.  and  IV. -VI. 

Phocais,  a  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  1. 

PHONETIC  CHANGES,  19  ff,  Phonet. 
decay,  p.  12,  foot-note  1. 

Phryx,  decl.,  68. 

Phy,  312,  4. 

Pi(/et,  constr.,  409,  III. ;  410,  IV. 

Pill,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 

Pix  wants  gen.  plur.,  183,  5 ;  w.  short 
increm..  p.  343,  foot-note  2. 

PLACE,  adverbs  of,  305,  I.,  II.,  and 
III. ;  305,  N.  2,  1).  Endings  of 
designations  of  place,  323.  Constr. 
w.  verbs  meaning  to  place,  380.  N. 
Place  whither,  380;  where,  dat., 
385,  4,  4);  abl.,  425;  locat.,  425, 


II. ;   426  ;   whence,  412.      Adjs.  of 
place  for  Eng.  adverbs,  443,  N.  2. 

Plautus,  quantity  of  syllables  in,  578, 
N.  2;  580,  III.,  notes  2-4;  metres, 
633;  III. 

Pleasing,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385, 1. 

Pteblcuia,  formation,  p.  159,  foot- 
note 1. 

Plebs,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

Plenty,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  410,  V. ; 
421,  II. ;  421,  N.  1 ;  w.  adjs.  of, 
421,  II. 

Plenus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Pleonasm,  636,  III. 

PLUPERFECT,  197;  222,  II.  Plup. 
indie..  472 ;  476,  2 ;  in  seq.  of  tenses, 
493;  in  temp,  clauses,  518,  N.  2; 
521,  II.,  1.  Plup.  subj.,  482;  in 
subj.  of  desire,  483,  2;  in  seq.  of 
tenses,  493;  495,  I.;  496,  II.,  (2); 
in  condit.,  507,  III. ;  509,  N.  3 ; 
510 ;  513,  N.  1 ;  in  concess.,  515,  II., 
3  ;  in  temp,  clauses,  518, 1 ;  519,  2, 
N.  1 ;  520,  II. ;  521,  II.,  2 ;  in  indir. 
disc.,  527,  2  ;  527,  II.  and  III. ;  527, 
N.  2. 

PLURAL,  44 ;  wanting,  130.  Plur. 
for  sing.,  130,  3  ;  446,  N.  2.  Plur. 
w.  change  of  meaning,  132.  -E  in 
Greek  plur.,  581,  III.,  1.  -Is  in 
plur.,  581,  VIIL,  1. 

Pturimi,  indef.  num.,  175,  N.  3 ;  gen. 
of  price,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 

Plus,  165,  N.  1 ;  without  quam,  417, 
1,  N.  2.  Pluris,  constr.,  p.  213, 
foot-note  2 ;  405.  Quant,  of  increm. 
of  plus,  585,  V.,  2. 

Poetical  dat.,  380,  4 ;  385,  4;  388,  4. 

Pollux,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  V.,  2. 

Polypus,  u  in,  581,  IX.,  3,  N. 

Polysyndeton,  636,  III.,  1. 

Pondo,  648,  I. 

Ponew.  ace.,  433. 

Pond,  constr.,  380,  N.  0  in  pomi, 
positum,  592,  2. 

Por,  insep.  prep.,  308.  Por  for  port, 
344,  6. 

Porticus,  gend.,  118,  (1). 

Portus,  decl.,  117, 1,  2). 

Posed  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Position,  syllables  when  long  by,  p. 
338,  foot-note  3. 

Positive,  160 ;  wanting,  166.  Pos.  for 
compar.,  444,  2,  N.  3. 

POSSESSIVE  pronouns,  185 ;  w.  gen. 
363,  4, 1)  ;  398,  3 ;  for  gen.,  396,  II. 
N. ;  401,  N.  3  ;  w.  refert  ana  interest 
408,  I.,  2.  Use  of  poss.  pron.,  447 
reflex,  448;  449.  Possessive  compds. 
343,  III.  Possessive  gen.,  396,  I. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


415 


Possessor,  dat.  of,  387. 

Possum,  in  conclus.,  511, 1,  N.  2;  w. 
pres.  infin.,  537,  1. 

Post  in  compds.,  344,  5 ;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Post,  denoting  interval  of  time,  430. 
Postw.  ace.,  433;  433,1. 

Post-classical  period,  640,  III. 

Postea,  304,  IV.,  N.  2;  in  series,  554, 
I.,  N.  4. 

Poste&quam,  311, 1 ;  in  temp,  clauses, 
518. 

Posterns,  compar.,  163,  3. 

Postlcus,  l  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Postis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Postmodum,  304, 1..  2. 

Postpositive,  554,  III.,  4;  554,  V.,  3. 

Postquam  in  temp,  clauses,  518;  w. 
perf.  indie.,  p.  260,  foot-note  2. 

Postremo  in  series,  554, 1.,  N.  2. 

Postrlmus,  force  of,  440,  N.  2 ;  442,  N. 

Postrldie  w.  gen.,  398,^  5 ;  w.  ace.,  437, 
1.  Postrldie,  quam  in  temp,  clauses, 
518,  N.  3.  Ewfogtridti,  p.  341, 
foot-note  2. 

Postulo,  constr.,  374,  2;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 1. 

Potins  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Potential  subj.,  485;  486;  in  declar. 
sentences,  486, 1. ;  in  intercom,  sen- 
tences. 486,  II. :  in  subord.  clauses, 
486,111. 

Potior  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3;  w.  abl., 
421,  I.;  w.  ace.,  421,  N.  4;  in 
gerund,  constr.,  544,  N.  5. 

Potits  w.  act.  meaning,  257,  N.  2. 

Prae  in  compds.,  170,  1 ;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Prae  w.  abl.,  434;  434,  I.  Quant. 
ofprae  in  compds.,  576, 1.,  1 ;  594, 4. 

Praedpio,  constr..  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 

Praecox,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 

Praecurro,  constr..  p.  202, foot-note  1. 

Praeditus,  constr.,  420,  N.  1,  4). 

Praenamen,  649 ;  abbreviated,  649, 1. 

Praesente  w.  plur.,  438,  6,  N. 

Praesto,  praestolor,  constr.,  p.  202, 
foot-note  1. 

Praeter  in  compds.  w.  ace.,  372.  Prae- 
ter  w.  ace.,  433  ;  433,  I. 

Praetered  in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 

Praeut,  311,  2. 

PBEDICATE,  356,  2 ;  simple,  360 ;  com- 
plex, 361 ;  modified,  361, 1.  Pred. 
nouns,  360,  N.  1;  362;  for  dat., 
390,  N.  2.  Pred.  adjs.,  360,  N.  1 ; 
438,  2.  Pred.  ace.,  373,  1.  Pred. 
gen.,  401  ff. ;  varieties,  402-  verbs 
with,  403  ff. ;  pred.  gen.  or  price, 
404  ;  405.  Pred.  abl.,  421,  N. 
4.  Pred.  after  infin.,  536,  2.  Infin. 
as  pred.,  539,  I.  Predicates  com- 


pared, 535, 1.,  6.    Position  of  pred., 

560. 

Predicative  roots,  314?  I. 
PREPOSITIONS,   307 ;   msep. ,   308  ;   in 

compds.,  344,   5  and  6.     Compds. 

w.  ace.,  372;  w.  two  aces.,  376;  w. 

dat.,  386.    Preps,  in  expressions  of 

time,  379,  1 ;  429,  1  and  2 ;  430 ; 

of  place,  380 ;  .412 ;  425 ;  of  motion 

or  direction,  384,  3,  1) ;   denoting 


III..  N.  1 ;  for  part,  gen.,  397,  3.  N. 
3 ;  tor  gen.  w.  adjs.,  400,  2  and  3 ; 
for  gen.  after  verbs,  407,  N.  2 ;  410, 
I.,  2  ;  410,  II.,  3 ;  after  r'efert  and  in- 
terest, 408,  I.,  3 ;  408,  IV. ;  express- 
ing penalty,  410,  III. ;  separation, 
source,  cause,  413  ;  414,  N.  1. ;  415 ; 
416, 1. ;  after  compar.,  417,  notes  3 
and  5;  denoting  accompaniment, 
419,  I. ;  manner,  419,  III.  Cases 
w.  preps.,  432  ff. ;  ace.,  433;  abl., 
434 ;  ace.  or  abl.,  435.  Special  uses 
of  preps.,  43^  L:  434,  I.;  435, 

I.  Preps,  originally  adverbs,  436. 
Adverbs  as  preps.,  437.    Preps  w. 
infin.,  533,  3,  N.  4;  w.  ger.,  542, 
III.;    542,  IV.,    (2);  w.    gerund, 
constr.,  544,  2.    Prep,  between  adj. 
and    noun,    565,    3.      Position    of 
preps.,  569,  II.     Quant,  of  insep. 
preps.,  594,  2.    Monosyllabic  preps, 
repeated.  636.  III.,  6;  other  preps., 
636,  III.,  6,  N. 

Presbyter,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

PRESENT,  197;  198,  L,  1;  222.  I. 
Pres.  stem,  250;  251.  Pres.  indie., 
466  ;  467 ;  of  gen.  truths,  customs, 
467,  II.  Hist,  pres.,  467,  III. ;  in 
temp,  clauses,  518,  N.  1.  Pres. 
subj.,  479;  in  condit.,  507,  II.; 
509 ;  513,  N.  1 ;  in  concess.,  515, 
II.,  2 ;  in  indir.  disc.,  525,  1 ;  527, 

II.  Pres.  imperat.,  487,  1.     Pres. 
infin.,  537.      Pres.   particip.,    550. 
Pres.  perf.,  197,  N.  1 ;  198,  I.,  2 ; 
471,  I.    Pres.  system,  222,  I.    -Is 
in  pres.  subj.,  581,  VIII.,  4. 

Priapeian  verse,  629,  II. 

Price,  gen.  of,  404;  405  ;  abl.,  422. 

Prldie,  locat.,  120,  N. ;  w.  gen.,  398, 

5;  w.   ace.,  437,  1.    Prldie  quam 

in  temp,  clauses,  520,  N.  2.    E  in 

prldie,  p.  241,  foot-note  2. 
Primary    steins,    315 ;    317.      Prim. 

suffixes,  p.  153?  foot-note  6 ;  320. 
Prlmum,prlmd,  in  series,  554, 1.,  N.  2. 
Prlnceps,  decl.,  57.    • 


416 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


PRINCIPAL  parts  of  verbs,  202 ;  220 ; 
257-288.  Prin.  clauses,  348,  N. 
2 ;  in  indir.  disc. ,  523 ;  supplied 
by  particip.,  549,  5.  Prin.  tenses, 
198, 1. ;  in  seq.,  491  ff.  Prin.  ele- 
ments of  sentence,  357, 1. 

Prior,  primus,  166  ;  rendered  by  relat. 
clause,  442,  N.  ;  by  adverb,  443,  N. 
1,  (2). 

JP)'iusquam,  311, 1 ;  in  temp,  clauses, 
520. 

Prwd,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Pro,  312,  3;  in  hiatus,  608,  II.,  1. 

Pro,  prod,  in  compds.,  344,  5  ;  pro  in, 
594,  5.  Compds.  w.  dat.,  386.  Pro 
w.  abl.,  434  ;  434, 1.  •  expressing  in 
defence  of,  in  behalr  of,  384,  3,  2). 
Pro  w.  ger.,  p.  316,  foot-note  1. 

Proceleusmatics,  633,  III.,  2,  N.  1. 

Proclitics,  18,  1,  N.  1. 

Proclivis  without  superlat.,  168,  3; 
w.  supine,  547, 1. 

Procul  w.  abl. ,  437,  2. 

Prod  in  compos.,  344,  5. 

Proliibed,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1. 

Prohibesso  for  pronibuero,  240,  4. 

Prohibitions,  subj.  in,  484,  IV.,  w. 
N.  1 ;  imperat.,  487,  2,  2). 

Proinde,  310,  4. 

Prolepsis,  440,  2;  636,  IV.,  3. 

Pronominal  roots,  314,  II. 

PRONOUNS,  182  ff. ;  pers.,  183, 1 ;  184 ; 
substant.,  p.  70,  foot-note  3;  case- 
endings,  184,  1;  possess.,  185;  de- 
mon., 186:  relat.,  187;  interrog., 
188;  indef.,  189;  190;  correlat., 
191.  Prons.  as  adjs. ,  438, 1.  Agree- 
ment of  pron.,  445.  Use  of  pers. 
pron.,  446  ;  possess.,  447  ff. ;  renex., 
448;  449;  demon.,  450  ff . ;  relat., 
453;  interrog.,  454;  indef.,  455  ff. 
Pron.  in  indir.  disc.,  526.  Prons. 
brought  together,  569,  I.,  2.  Pron. 
redundant,  636,  III.,  7. 

Pronunciation  of  Latin,  Eoman,  5  ff. ; 
Eng. ,  9  ff . ;  Continental,  15. 

Prope  w.  ace.,  433;  433,  I. ;  w.  perf. 
indie.,  471,  2;  w.  hist,  tenses  of  in- 
die., 511,  1,  N.  4. 

Proper  nouns,  39, 1 ;  plur.  of,  130,  2. 

Propinquus  without  superlat.,  168,  3 ; 
constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1  and  3. 

Propior,  proximus,  166;  w.  ace.,  391, 
2;  433,  I.,  N.  2;  w.  force  of  Eng. 
adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Propius  w.  ace.,  437, 1 ;  433,  I.,  N.  2. 

Proportionals,  173,  2. 

Proprius,  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1 
and  3. 

Propter  w.  ace. ,  433  ;  433,  I. 


Proptered,  554,  IV.,  2. 

PROSODY,  574  ff. ;  quant.,  575  ff. ; 
versification,  596  ff. ;  figures  of  pros., 
608. 

Prosopopcia,  637,  IX. 

Prosper ?  dec!.,  150,  N.,  1). 

Prospicio,  constr.,  385,  1. 

Protinus,  p.  145,  foot-note  5. 

Prout,  311,  2. 

Provided,  constr.,  385,  1. 

Provides,  coinpar.,  164;  w.  gen.,  p. 
210,  foot-note  3. 

Proxime  w.  ace.,  433, 1.,  N.  2 ;  437, 1, 

Proximus,  see  Pi'opior. 

Prudens,  decl.,  157;  w.  gen.,  p.  210, 
foot-note  3 ;  w.  force  of  En"-,  ad- 
verb, 443,  N.  1,  (1). 

-pte,  pronouns  in,  185,  N.  2. 

Pudet,  constr.,  409,  III. ;  410,  IV. 

Pudlcus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Puer,  decl.,  51. 

Ptynd  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Puppis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

PURPOSE,  dat.  of,  384,  1,  3) ;  subj.  of, 
497  ff. ;  object  clauses,  498 ;  peculi- 
arities, 499.  Infin.  of  purpose,  533, 
II.;  gerund,  542,  I.,  N.  2;  542, 
III.,  N.  2;  gerundive,  544,  2,  N. 
2;  supine.  546;  particip.,  549,  3. 
Position  of  clauses  of  purpose,  572, 

PUs,  defect.,  133,  N. 

-pus,  compds.  in.  quant,  of  increm. , 

585,  II.,  5,  (3). 
Pitta,  a  in,  581,  III.,  3. 
Putor,  constr.,  534, 1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Pyrites,  decl.,  50. 
Pyrrhic,  597,  N.  1. 
Pythiambic  stanza,  631,  XVII.   and 

XVIII. 


Q,  qu,  dropped,  36,  3.     Qu  changed 

to  c,  33, 1,  N. 
Qua,  304,  II.,  3 ;  305,  V. 
Quaero,  constr.,  p.  193,  foot-note  1. 
Qudlis,  qudliscumque,  187,  4.     Cujus- 

modl,  etc.,  for  qudlis,  187,  4,   N. 

Qudlis,  interrog.,  188,  4. 
Qudlislibet,  191. 
Qudlisqudlis,  187,  4. 
Quality,  abl.  of,  419,  II.,  w.  N. 
Quam,  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ;  304, 1.,  4; 

305,  V. ;  p.  151,  foot-note  1 ;  311. 

2;  w.  comparat.,  417;  444,  2;  w.' 

superlat.,  170,  2,  (2) ;  w.  infin.,  524, 

1,  2).     Quam  forpostguam,  430,  N. 

1,  3).      Quam  pro,  417,  1,  N.   5. 

Quam,  quam  ut,  w.  subj.,  502,  2. 

Quam  qul    w.   subj.,   503,   II.,  3, 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


417 


Quam  si,  513,  II.  Tam-—quam, 
non  minus  —  quam,  non  magis — 
quam,  555,  II.,  1.  Nihil  aliud 
quam,  555,  III.,  1. 

Quamdiu,  311, 1. 

Quamobrem,  554,  IV.,  2. 

Quamquam,  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ;  311, 
4;  in  concess.,  515, 1. ;  515,  notes  1 
and  2;  w.  infin.,  524, 1,  2). 

Quamvis,  311, 4 ;  in  concess.,  515,  III.; 

515,  N.  3. 

Quando,  interrog.,  305,  IV. ;  relat., 
311,  1  and  7 ;  in  causal  clauses, 

516.  ^  Quando  in  compds.,  594,  8. 
Quanddquidem,  311,  7 ;  6  in,  594,  8. 
QUANTITY,  16 ;  575  ff. :  signs  of,  16, 

N.  3;  gen.  rules,  576  ff.  Quant, 
in  final  syllables,  579  ff.  ;  incre- 
ments, 582  ff.  ;  deriv.  endings,  587 ; 
stem  -  syllables,  588  ff.  ;  syllables 
before  two  consonants  or  a  double 
consonant,  651. 

Quantumlibet,  quantumvis,  311,  4. 
Quantumvis  in  concess.,  515,  Is.  6. 

Quantus,  relat.,  187, 4;  interrog.,  188, 
4;  correlat.,  191.  Quantl,  constr., 
p.  213,  foot-note  2 ;  405. 

Q  uantusvls,  indef .  ,191. 

Qudpropter,  554,  IV.,  2. 

Qudre,  304,  II.,  1,  N. ;  554,  IV.,  2 ;  e 
in,  p.  341,  foot-note  2. 

Quasi.  311,  2 ;  TV.  guldam,  456,  2 ;  in 
condit.,  513,  II.  /in  quasi,  581, 1., 
1 ;  a  in,  594, 10. 

Qudvls,  indef.,  305,  V. 

Que,  310, 1 ;  p.  151,  foot-note  1 ;  554, 
I.  Idem — que,  451,  5.  Que — que, 
et — que,  que — et,  que — atque,  neque 
(nee)— ^0,  554, 1.,  5.  Position  of 
que.  569.  III..  4.  Que  lengthened 
in  Vergil,  608,  V.,  N.  2. 

Quercus,  decl.,  119,  4. 

Queror  w.  infin.,  p.  310,  foot-note  2. 

Questioning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  374, 
N.  3. 

QUESTIONS,  351 ;  double,  353 ;  delibe- 
rat.  in  indir.  disc.,  523,  II.,  1,  N. ; 
rhetor.,  p.  297,  foot-note  2;  indir.. 
528,  2  ;  529, 1. 

Qul,  relat.  pron.,  187 ;  453 ;  interrog., 
188;  454;  indef.,  189;  190;  455; 
correlat. ,  191.  Qul  w.  subj .  of  pur- 
pose, 497, 1. ;  of  result,  500, 1. ;  503. 
Qul  in  condit.,  507, 2 ;  concess.,  515, 
III. ;  5_15,  N.  4 ;  causal  clauses,  517. 
Qul  dltitur,  vocatur,  453,  7.  Quod 
as  adverb,  ace.,  353,  6.  Quod  in 
restrict,  clauses,  503,  N.  1.  /in 
cui,  581, 1.,  1. 

Qul,  adverb,  187, 1 ;  188,  2. 
19 


Quid,  311,  7  ;  in  causal  clauses,  516; 

w.  relat.,  517,  3.  2)  ;  w.  infin.,  524, 

1,2).     A'mquw.581,  III.,  3. 
Qulcumque,  gen.  relat.,  187,  3. 
Quldam,  indef.,  190,  2,  1)  ;  191  ;  use, 

456. 
Quidem  w.  pron.,  446,  N.  1  ;  position, 

569,  IH.;  569,  III.,  3. 
Quies,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 
$tfiftM9,gen.  indef.,  190,  2,  2);  use, 

458. 
Quln,  p.  75,  foot-note  2  ;  311,  6  ;  w. 

subj.,  500,  II.  ;  501,  II.,  2;  504. 
Qulnam,  188,  3. 
Quinarius,  646. 
Quinquatrus,  gend.,  118,  (2). 
Qulppe.  p.  75.  foot-note  2;  w.  relat., 

51?,  3,1). 

Quiris,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 
Quis,  interrog.,  188  ;  use,  454  ;  indef., 

189;  190;  use,  455;  correlat.,  191. 

/  in  quis,  579,  3.    A  hi  qua,  in- 

def., 579,  3.     Quid  redundant,  636, 

lli.5  *  • 

Quis  for  quibus,  p.  74,  foot-note  5. 
Quisnam,  188,  3. 

Quispiam,  indef.,  190,  2,  1)  ;  use,  455. 
Quisquam,  indef.,  190,  2,  1)  ;  use,  457. 
Quisque,  gen.  indef.,  190,  2,  2)  ;  use, 

458;  w.   abl.   abs.,  431.  N.  3;  w. 

plur.  verb,   461,   3.     Placed  next 

sum  or  mi,  569,  1.,  2. 
Quisquis,  gen.  relat.,  187,  3.     Quid- 

quid  used  of  persons,  453,  1,  N. 
Quitum,  i  in,  590,  1. 
Qulvis,  gen.  indef.,  190,  2,  2);  use, 

458;  to  in,  581,  VIIL,  3,  &. 
Quo,  304,  II.,  3,  N.  ;  305,  II.  ;  311,  5  ; 

w.  part,  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3; 

w.  subj.  of  purpose,  497,  II. 
Quoad,  311,  1  ;  w.  part,  gen.,  p.  209, 

foot-note  3  ;  in  temp,  clauses,  519. 
Quodrcd,  554,  IV.,  2. 

uocumque,  305,  N.  1. 


Quocumque, 
Quod,  p.  151 


uod,  p.  151,  foot-note  1  ;  311,  7  ;  in 
causal  clauses,  516. 


-.  540,  IV.,  w.  N.    Nisi 

quod,  555,^111.,  1.    See  also  Qul. 
Quoi  for  cui,  quoius  for  cujus,  p.  74, 

foot-note  5. 
Quolibet,  305,  II. 
Quom,  305,  IV.  ;  p.  151,  foot-notes  1 

and  4  ;  311,  1,  4,  and  7. 
Quominus,  311,  5  ;  w.  subj.,  497,  II.  ; 

499,  3,  N.  2. 
Quoniam,  composition,  p.  6,  foot-note 

5;  311,  7;  m  causal  clauses,  516; 

w.  relat.,  517,  3,  2). 
Qvoque,  310,  1;  554,  I.,  4;  position, 

569,fll.;oin,594,10. 


418 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


^uoquo,  305,  N.  1. 

}uorsum,  305,  II. 

]uot,  relat.,  187,  4;  interrog.,  188,  4; 

correlat.,  191. 
Qwtannis,  304,  II.,  1,  N. 
Quotient,  305,  IV. 

guofot,  relat. ,  187, 4 ;  interrog. ,  188, 4. 
Quovis,  305,  II. 
Quutn,  305,  IV. ;  see  Cum. 

E 

E  assimilated  to  I,  34,  2 ;  dropped,  36, 
3,  N.  3.  Noun-stems  in  r,  60 ;  verb- 
stems  in  supine,  256,  1.  Decl.  of 
nouns  in  r,  77.  Quant,  of  final  syl- 
lables jn  r,  580,  II.,  w.  N.  2. 

-ra,  -ra,  suffixes,  320. 

Radix,  decl.,  59. 

Hdstrum,  plur.,  143,  2. 

^a^,  circumlocutions  w.,  636,  III., 
10. 

Ratum,  a  in,  590, 1. 

Ravis,  decl.,  62,  II. ,  1. 

Re,  insep.  prep.,  308;  in  compds., 
344,  6 ;  e  in,  594,  2.  J2g  for  re,  594, 
2,  N.  3. 

-re  for  ris,  237. 

Eeading,  rhythmical,  607. 

Redpse,  p.  73,  foot-note  5. 

Eeason,  clauses  expressing,  516. 

Eecollection,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399, 1., 
2;  gen.  of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Recorder  w.  gen.,  406,  II. ;  w.  ace., 
407,  N.  1,  (1) ;  w.  abl.  w.  <fc,  407, 
N.  2. 

Recuso,  constr.,  p.  279,  foot-note  2. 

.Z&d,  insep.  prep.,  308;  in  compds., 
344,6. 

Eeduplicated  pronouns,  184,  4 ;  per- 
fects, 255,  I.  Quant,  of  first  two 
syllables  of  trisyllabic  reduplicated 
perfects,  591.  Increm.  of  redupli- 
cated forms  of  verbs,  586,  2. 

Eeduplication  in  pres.,  251,  6;  perf., 
255, 1. ;  compds.,  255,  L,  4. 

Refert,  constr.,  406,  III. ;  408. 

Refertus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Eeflexive  pron.,  184,  2.  Eeflex.  use 
ofpron.,448;  449. 

Eefusing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  505,  II. 

Begarding,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  373 ; 
w.  two  oats.,  390,  N.  1,  2) ;  w.  gen., 
403. 

Regno  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3. 

EELATIVE  PRONOUN,  187  ;  correlat., 
191 ;  use,  453.  Abl.  of  relat.  for 
postquam,  430,  N.  2.  Eelat.  at- 
tracted, 445,  8.  Eelat.  clause  w. 

L   gubj.  of  desire,  483, 5 ;  purpose,  497, 


I. ;  result,  500,  I. ;  503 ;  to  charac- 
terize indef.  or  gen.  anteced.,  503, 
I. ;  after  unus,  solus,  etc.,  503,  II., 
1 ;  after  dlgnus,  ina/lqnus,  idoneus, 
aptus,  503,  II.,  2;  after  comparat. 
w.  quam,  503,  II.,  3.  Eelat.  clause 
in  condit.,  507,  2;  concess.,  515, 

111.,  w.  N.  4;   causal  clause,  517. 
Eelat.  clause  w.  infinit.,  524,  1,1); 
supplied  by  particip.,  549,  4.    Posi- 
tion of  relat..  569.  III. ;  before  prep., 
569,  II.,  1.  Position  of  relat.  clauses. 
572,  II.,  N. 

Relaxo,  relevo,  w.  abl.,  p.  219,  foot- 
note 1. 

Eelieving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  414, 1. 

Relinquo  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2j). 

Mliquus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2.  RtU- 
qulfacere,  401,  JN.  4. 

Eeinaining,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  501, 
J..,  1. 

Eemembering,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  407. 

Eeminding,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 
I. ;  410,  I. 

Reminiscor  w.  gen.,  406,  II. 

Repeated  action  denoted  by  imperf. 
indie.,  469,  II. ;  plup.  indie.,  518, 
N.  2,  2) ;  imperf.  or  plup.  subj., 

518. 1. 

Eepelling,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  2. 
Repent/inus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  5. 
Reposed  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 
Requies,  decl.,  137,  1 ;  quant,  of  in- 

crem.,  585,  III.,  3. 
Res,  decl.,  120;  w.  adjs.,  440,  N.  4. 

Circumlocutions  w.  res,  636,  III.,  10. 
Eesisting,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385, 1. 
RespubUca,  decl.,  126. 
Restat  w.  subj.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 
Restis,  decl.,  62,  III. 
Eestrictive  clauses  w.  quod,  503,  N.  1. 
EESULT,  subj.   of,  500  ff. ;  substant. 

clauses  of,  501;  peculiarities,  502; 

in  relat.  clauses,  503 ;  vr.gmn,  504 ; 

w.  special  verbs,  505.    Position  of 

clauses  of  result,  572,  III.,  N. 
Rete,  decl.,  63,  2,  (2). 
Eeticentia,  636,  L,  3  ;  637,  XL,  3. 
Rex,  decl.,  59 ;  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 

m.,  3. 

RJiea,  gin,  577,  L,  2,  (3). 
Ehetoric,  figures  of,  634,  N. ;  637. 
Ehetorical  questions,  523,  II.,  2. 
Ehythm,  caesura  of,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 
Ehythmic  accent,  599. 
Ehythmical  reading,  607. 
Rldeo  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 
Eivers,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  L,  2; 

43,  1. 
-ro,  suffix,  320,  II. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


419 


Rogo  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2;  w.  subj., 
p.  274,  foot-note  1. 

Roma,  decl.,  48,  4. 

Koman  pronunciation  of  Lat.,  5  ff. 
Koman  authors,  640.  Boman  calen- 
dar, 641  ff.  ;  money,  weights,  and 
measures,  646  ff.  ;  names,  649. 

Eoots,  314.    Boot-stems,  315. 

Eos  without  gen.  plur. ,  133,  5. 

Rostrum,  rostra,  132. 

-rs,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  65,  3,  (1) ;  90. 

Rudis  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Eules  of  syntax,  558. 

Rus,  decl.,  64,  N.  3  ;  133,  N. ;  constr., 
380,  2,  1).  Rure,  412,  1.  Rurl, 
426,  2. 

-rus,  compar.  of  adjs.  in,  163,  3. 

Rutum,  quant,  of  pen.,  590, 1. 

8 

S,  sound,  7 ;  13,  II. ;  changed  to  r, 
31 ;  dropped,  36,  3,  N.  3 ;  3*6,  5;  1). 
Stems  in  s,  61.  Decl.  of  nouns  in  s, 
64 ;  65, 3 ;  79  ff.  ;  quant,  of  increm., 
585, 1.,  2;  585.  II.,  2.  Final  sylla- 
bles in  s  short  before  following  con- 
sonant, 576, 1,  N.  2.  Final  s  dropped 
in  poetry,  608, 1.,  N.  3. 

-S^patronymics  in,  322. 

-sa,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Sacer,  compar.,  167,  2;  w.  gen.,  p. 
205,  foot-note  3. 

Saepe.  compar.,  306,  4. 

Sat,  decl.,  133,  5.  Sal,  sales,  132.  A 
in  sal,  579,  2 ;  quant,  of  increm., 
585, 1.,  4,  (3). 

Salix  w.  snort  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Saluber,  decl.,  153,  N.  1, 1). 
-  Salutaris  without  superlat.,  168,  3; 
w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Samnls,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

Sane  quam  as  adverb,  phrase,  305, 
N.  4. 

Sapid  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Sapphic  verse,  604,  N.  1 ;  628,  VI. 
and  VII.  Sapphic  stanza,  631,  II. 
and  III. 

Satis,  compar.,  306,  4 ;  w.  part,  gen., 
p.  209,  foot-note  3 ;  compos,  w.  dat.. 
384,  4,  N.  1. 

Saturn,  a  in,  590, 1. 

Satur,  decl.,  150,  N.,  2). 

Saying,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  534,  1,  N. 
1  f  2^ 

Scanning,  607,  N. 

Scazon,  p.  361,  foot-note  1. 

Scelus  w.  supine,  547, 1. 

Scidl,  i  in,  590, 1. 


Stitns  w.  force  of  Eng.  adverb,  443. 
N.  1,  (1). 

Scilicet,  304,  IV.  t  N.  2. 

-SCO,  inceptives  in,  337. 

Se,  insep.  prep.,  308  ;  in  compds.,  344, 
6 ;  l  in,  594,  2. 

Second  decl.,  51  ff.  Sec.  conj.,  207; 
208 ;  225 ;  261  ff. ;  e  in  imperat.,  581, 
IV.,  3.  Sec.  pers.  sing,  of  indef. 
you,  484,  IV.,  N.  2. 

Secondary  tenses,  198,  II.  Secondary 
stems,  315;  318.  Second,  suffixes, 
p.  154,  foot-note  4. 

Secundum  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433, 1. 

Securis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Secus.  ;sex,'  defect.,  134.  Secus, 
'  otherwise,'  p.  145,  foot-note  5. 

Sed  for  se,  184,  5.  Sed,  insep.  prep., 
308 ;  in  compds,  344,  6. 

Sed,  310,  3 ;  554,  III.,  2.  Non  solum 
(non  modo  or  non  tantum) — sed 
etiam,  554,  I.,  5.  Sed,  sed  tamen, 
resumptive,  554,  IV.,  3.  Position 
of  sed  m  poetry,  569,  III.,  N. 

Sedes,  gen.  plur.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Sedtamen,  554,  III.,  3. 

Seeming,  pred.  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  403. 

Selling,  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  405. 

Semel,  p.  145,  foot-note  4. 

Sement^s,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Semi-deponents,  268,  3 ;  283 ;  465, 
N.  2. 

Seminex,  defect.,  159,  II. 

Semi- vowels,  3,  II.,  1. 

Senarius,  603,  N.  6 ;  622. 

Senatus,  decl.,  119,  3. 

Sending,  two  dats.  w.  verbs  of,  390, 
N.  1,  2). 

Seneca,  metres,  633,  II.,  notes  2  and  3. 

Senex,  decl.,  66  ;  compar.,  168,  4. 

SENTENCES,  syntax,  345  ff. ;  classifica- 
tion, 345  ff.  ;  simple,  347 ;  357 ; 
complex,  348 ;  359 ;  compound,  349 ; 
declarat.,  350;  in  indir.  disc.,  523, 
I. ;  imperat.,  354.  See  also  Exclama- 
tory, Interrogative,  Conditional. 

SEPARATION,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  4, 
2).  Abl.  of  separat.,  413  ;  414. 
Separat.  producing  emphasis,  561, 

Sepsefor  se,  184,  5. 

SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES,  491  ff. ;  pecu- 
liarities, 495. 

Sequitur  w.  subj.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

Series,  how  begun  and  continued,  554, 
I.,  N.  2. 

Series,  defect.,  122,  2. 

Serving,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385, 1. 

Servus,  decl.,  51. 

Sescentl  used  indefinitely,  174,  4, 


420 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Seae  for  se,  184,  4. 

Sesterces,  647. 

Sestertium,  sestertium,  647t  HI.  and 

Sestertius,  646  j  647. 

Setius,  quo  sUiu*  for  quominus,  497, 
2,  N. 

£ez*,  310,  2. 

Ships,  gend.  of  names  of,  53, 1,  (2). 

Short  syllables,  575. 

Shortening  of  vowels,  21. 

Showing,  two  aces.  w.  verbs  of,  373. 

Si,  derivat.  and  meaning,  p.  73,  foot- 
note 2 :  311,  3 ;  p.  281,  foot-note  2 ; 
in  conoit,  507  n.  ;  w.  perf.  indie., 
471t  5 ;  w.  plup.  indie.,  472;  2 ;  w. 
subj.  of  desire,  483,  1.  Si  in  con- 
cess.,  515,  n.  Si  =  to  see  whether, 
529, 1,  N.  1.  Si  quidem,  507, 3,  N.  2. 

-si,  suffix.  320,  n.  -Si  in  Greek dats., 
68,5;  *in,  581,  L,  1. 

Sic,  p.  73,  foot-note  2;  304,  HI.,  2; 
305,  V. ;  551,  N.  2;  redundant 
636,  HI.,  7. 

Sieut,  sicuti,  311,  2. 

Stem  for  sim,  204,  2. 

-sills,  adjs.  in,  333. 

Silver  age,  640,  n.,  2. 

Silvester,  decl.,  153;  N.  1, 1). 

-Sim  in  perf.  subj.,  240,  4;  in  ad- 
verbs, 304,  L,  1. 

-sima,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9. 

Simile,  637, 1. 

Similis,  compar.,  163,  2  ;  w.  dat.,  p. 
205,  foot-note  1 ;  w.  gen.,  p.  205, 
foot-note  3. 

-simo,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9. 

Simple  sentence,  347 ;  357.  Simp,  ele- 
ments, 357,  2;  subject,  358;  pred., 
360.  Simple  words,  313,  N.  2. 

Simul,  p.  145,  foot-note  4 ;  311, 1 ;  w. 
abl.,  437,  2.  Simul  atque,  ac  in 
temp,  clauses,  518 ;  w.  perf.  indie., 
471,4. 

Simuldc,  simulatque,  311, 1 ;  in  temp, 
clauses,  518  ;  w.  perf.  indie.,  471,  4. 

Sin,  311,  3;  in  condit.,  507  ff. ;  p. 
282,  foot-note  1.  Sin  aliter,  552,  3. 

-sin  in  Greek  dat.  plur.,  68,  5. 

Sine  w.  abl.,  434. 

Singular,  44 ;  wanting,  131. 

Sinistrd,  constr.,  425,  2. 

Sind,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1.  /in 
situm,  590,  1. 

Siquidem,  311. 7  ;  507,  3,  N.  2  ;  quant. 
of  first  syllab.,  594. 10. 

Sttio  w.  ace.,  371,  HI.,  N.  1. 

Situ,  decl.,  62,  it,  1. 

Size,  310,  2;  554,  II.,  3. 

Size,  gen.  of,  419,  2, 1). 


Skill,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399,  L,  2;  gen, 
of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Smell,  ace.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. 

-SO,  suffix,  320,  II.  So  in  fut.  perf.. 
240,  4. 

Socer,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

Socio  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Sol,  decl.,  60  ;  133,  5 ;  o  in,  579,  2. 

Solum,  non,  solum — »ed  etiam  (verum 
etiam),  554,  I.,  5. 

Solus,  decl.,  151 ;  for  Eng.  adverb, 
443,  N.  1,  2.  Gen.  of  solus  w.  pos- 
sess., 398,  3.  Solus  qui  w.  subj., 
503,  II.,  1. 

Soled,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

*  Son,'  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398,  1,  N. 
2.  Name  of  adopted  son,  649,  3. 

Sonants,  3,  II.,  5, 1  •  3,  N.  1,  II.,  1. 

Sons,  defect.,  159,  II. 

-sorius,  o  in,  587,  HI.,  4. 

Sors,  abl.,  64,  N.  3. 

Sotadean  verse,  626,  N.  2. 

Source,  abl.  of,  413 ;  415. 

Space,  ace.  of,  379. 

Sparing,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  IL 

Sj>ecial  constr.  w.  infin.,  539.  Gen. 
in  spec,  constr.,  398. 

Species,  decl.,  122,  2. 

Specification,  ace.  of,  378 ;  abl.,  424. 

Specimen  without  plur.,  130, 1,  4). 

Specus,  decl.,  117, 1,  2);  p.  50,  foot- 
note 1;  gend.,  118,  (2). 

Speech,  parts  of,  38.  Figures  of 
speech,  634  ff. 

SpeS)  decl.,  122,  2. 

Sptonx,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  3. 

Spirants,  3,  II. ,  4,  2. 

Spolio,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Spondaic  line,  610,  3. 

Spondee,  597, 1. 

Square  measure,  Kom.,  648,  V. 

Stadium,  648,  IV.,  N. 

Stanza,  606.    Stanzas  of  Horace,  631. 

Statud,  constr.,  498,  L,  N. ;  p.  274, 
foot-note  1. 

STEM  in  decl.,  46.  Stem-characteris- 
tic, stem-ending,  46,  3.  Stem  in 
Decl.  L,  48,  1;  Decl.  IL,  51,  1; 
Decl.  HI.,  57, 1 ;  58, 1 ;  59,  1 ;  60. 
1;  61,1;  62,1:  64,1,1);  66,1  and 
3:  69-98;  Decl.  IV.,  116, 1 ;  Decl. 
V.,  120,  1.  Stems  of  verbs,  202, 
notes  1  and  2 ;  203,  N.  2 ;  formation 
of,  249  ff.  Stems  of  words,  315  ff. 
Stem-syllables,  quant.,  588  ff. ;  va- 
riation in,  593.  1.  Primitives  w. 
long  stem-syllables,  595. 

Sterilis  w.  gen.,  p.  219,  foot-note  4. 

Stirpe,  constr.,  415,  II.,  N. 

Stiti,  i  in,  590, 1. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


421 


Sto  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 
steti,  a  in  datum.  590, 1. 

Strigilis,  decl.,  62,  m. 

Striving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  II. 

Strix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Strong  caesura,  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 

Struts,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

£ta<fc0,  constr.,  498,  IL,  N.  1 ;  p.  274, 
foot-note  2. 

Studiosus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3 ; 
w.  gen.  of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Sub  in  compels.,  344,  5 ;  w.  dat.,  386. 
£w&  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  435 ;  435,  N.  1 ; 
435,1. 

SUBJECT,  356,  1 ;  simple,  358 ;  com- 
plex, 359 ;  modified,  359.  N.  1.  Subj. 
nom.,  368.  Subj.  indef.,  518,  2. 
Subj.  ace.,  536.  Infin.  as  subi., 
538.  Subject  clauses,  501, 1.  SuV 
jects  compared,  535,  5.  Dat.  w. 
adjs.  signirpng  subject,  391, 1.  Posi- 
tion of  subj.,  560. 

Subjective  gen.,  396,  II. 

SUBJUNCTIVE,  196,  II.  Syntax  of  subj. , 
477  ff. ;  tenses,  478  ff. ;  sequence, 
490  ff.  Subj.  in  prin.  clauses,  483 
ff. :  in  subord.  clauses,  490  ff.  Subj. 
of  desire,  483;  484;  potent.,  485; 
486 ;  of  purpose,  497  ff. ;  of  result, 
500  ff. ;  in  condit.,  507  ff. ;  in  con- 
cess.,  515;  in  causal  clauses,  516; 
517 ;  in  temp,  clauses,  519  ff. ;  in 
indir.  disc.,  523 ff. ;  in  indir.  clauses, 
529  ff. ;  in  indir.  questions^  529, 1. 
Subi.  in  questions  of  surprise,  486, 
II. ,  N.  Subj .  of  desire  for  imperat . , 
487,  4.  -Is  in  subj.,  581,  VIII.,  4; 
-is,  581,  Vm.,  5. 

SUBOBDINATE  CLAUSES,  348,  N.  2 ;  490 
ff. ;  in  indir.  disc..  524.  Subord. 
conis.,  311;  555;  elements,  357,  1; 
position,  572. 

Substantive  pron.,  p.  70,  foot-note  3. 
Substant.  clauses,  532  ff. ;  540 :  of 
purpose,  499, 3 ;  of  result,  501.  Sub- 
stantives, see  Nouns. 

Subter  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  435. 

Suffixes,  46 :  case-suffix,  46,  1.  Suf- 
fixes in  format,  of  words,  313  ff. 
Primary  suffixes,  320. 

Sui,  decl.,  184;  use,  448;  449:  placed 
next  quisque^  569,  I.,  2.  /in  sibi, 
581  I.,  2. 

Suitableness,  constr.  w.  adis.  of,  391, 
I. ;  391.  II.,  1,  2). 

Sum  w.  dat.,  387 ;  two  dats.,  390,  N. 
1,  1);  pred.  gen.,  403;  404;  abl., 
415,  IIL,  N.  1 ;  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Summus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 


Supellex,  decl.,  64,  N.  3 ;  130, 1,  4). 

Super  in  compds.  w.  ace.,  372;  dat., 
386 ;  abl.,  434,  N.  1.  Super  w.  ace. 
or  abl.,  435;  435,  N.  2;  435, 1. 

SUPERLATIVE,  160:  irreg.,  163;  want- 
ing, 168 ;  169 ;  lormed  by  mdximZ, 
170.  Superlat.  w.  part,  gen.,  397, 
3 ;  p.  209,  foot-note  3.  Use  of  su- 
perlat.,  444. 

Supeme,  e  final  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Superus,  compar.,  163,  3. 

SUPIXE,  200,  TIL ;  endings,  248.  Su- 
pine system,  222,  HE.  Supine  stem, 
256.  Supine  wanting,  262,  notes  1 
and2;  265;266;  26f,  3 ;  271, 1  and 
2;  272, 1 ;  272,  notes  1  and  2;  276; 
278 ;  281 ;  282 ;  284 ;  284,  N.  2.  Su- 
pine in  seq.  of  tenses,  495,  IV.  Use 
of  sup.,  545  ff.  ;  sup.  in  -ww,  545; 
546 ;  w.  eo,  546,  2 ;  w.  irl,  546,  3 ; 
sup.  in  u.  545  ;  547.  Quant,  of  pen. 
of  dissyllabic  supines,  590. 

Supra  w.  ace.,  433 ;  433, 1. 

Suprernvs,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

Surds,_3,  II.,  5,  2}  3,  N.  1,  II.,  2. 

-surio,  desideratives  in,  338. 

Surname  in  names  of  Koman  citizens, 
649.  2. 

Sus,  decl.,  66. 

Suus.  185;  448;  449;  placed  near 
quuque,  569, 1,  2. 

Syllabic  caesura,  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 

Syllables,  8;  14;  15,  3;  quant.,  575 
ff.  Final  syl.  of  verse  either  long 
or  short,  605. 

Syllepsis,  636,  H.,  2. 

Symbols,  num.,  180. 

Synaeresis,  608,  III. 

Synaloepha,  synapheia,  608, 1.,  N.  5. 

Syncopated  pron..  186,  3. 

Syncope,  608,  VIE. ;  635,  2. 

Synecdoche,  637,  IV. 

Synesis,  636,  IV.,  4;  363,  4;  438,  6; 
445,5;  449,  3;  461. 

Synizesis,  608,  ILL.  N.  3. 

Synopsis  of  Decl.  HI. ,  69-98.  Syn.  of 
conj.,  223-230. 

SYNTAX,  345  ff. ;  sentences,  345  ff. ; 
nouns,  362  ff. ;  adjs.,  438  ff. ;  prons., 
445  ff. ;  verbs,  460  ff. ;  particles,  551 
ff.  Eules  of  syntax,  558.  Arrang. 
of  words  and  clauses,  559  ff.  Figures 
of  syntax,  634,  N. ;  636. 

Systole,  608,  VI. 


T,  sound,  7 ;  13,  n.  T  changed  to 
d,  33,  2 ;  assimilated  to  n  or  *,  34, 
1 ;  dropped  before  *,  36,  2 ;  when 


423 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


final.  36,  5,  2).  Stems  in  t,  58. 
Gend.  of  nouns  in  t,  111.  T 
changed  to  s  in  supine.  256,  1. 
Quant,  of  final  syllables  in  t,  579, 
2;  580,11.;  580,  III.,  N.  2, 1)! 

-ta,  -ta,  suffixes,  320.  Nouns  in  -ta, 
325. 

Taedet,  constr.,  409,  III. ;  410.  IV. 

Taking  away,  dat.  w.  verbs  or,  385,  2. 

Tdlis,  186,  4;  correlat.,  191. 

Taipei,  gend.,  48,  5. 

Tarn,  p.  75,  foot-note  1;  304,  I.,  4; 
305,  V. ;  meaning  and  use,  551,  N. 
2.  Tarn — quam,  555,  II.,  1. 

Tamen,  310,  3;  554,  III.,  2;  compds., 
554,  III.,  3. 

Tametsl,  311,  4 ;  in  concess.,  515,  II. 

Tandem  in  questions,  351,  4. 

Tanquam,  311,  2.  Tanquam,  tan- 
quam  si,  in  condit. ,  513,  II. 

Tantlsper,  304,  V.,  N.  2. 

Tantopere,  meaning  and  use,  551,  N.  2. 

Tantum  abest  ut,  502,  3.  Non  tan- 
turn — sed  etiam  (verum  etiam),  554, 
I.,  5. 

Tantus,  demonstr.,  186,  4;  correlat., 
191 ;  w.  interrog.,  454,  4.  Tantl, 
constr.,  p.  215,  foot-note  2;  405. 
Tantum  abest  ut,  502,  3. 

-tar,  suffix,  320, 1. 

-tas,  nouns  in,  325. 

Taste,  ace.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. 

-tat,  suffix,  p.  157,  foot-note  9. 

Tautology  discriminated  from  pleo- 
nasm, p.  371,  foot-note  1. 

Taxis  for  tetigerls,  240,  4. 

Teaching,  two  aces.  w.  verbs  of,  374. 

Ted  for  t'e,  184,  5. 

Tempera,  constr.,  385,  1. 

Templum,  decl.,  51. 

Temporal  conjs.,  311,  1  ;  555,  I. 
Temp,  clauses,  518  ff.  ;  position, 
572,  fl.,  N. 

Tempus  est  w.  infin.,  533,  N.  3. 

Tener,  decl.,  150,  N.,  1). 

TENSES,  197;  prin.  and  histor.,  198. 
Tense-signs,  242;  243.  Tenses  of 
indie.,  466  ff. ;  subj.,  478  ff. ;  im- 
pcrat..  487  ff.  Seq.  of  tenses,  490 
ff.  Tenses  in  temp,  clauses,  518, 
notes  1  and  2;  in  mdir.  disc.,  525. 
Tenses  of  infin.,  537 ;  particip.,  550. 

Tento,  constr.,  498,  II.,  N.  1. 

Tenus,  p.  145,  foot-note  5;  w.  gen., 
398,  5;  w.  abl.,  434;  after  its  case, 
434,  N.  4  ;  569,  II. 

Ter,  e  in,  579,  3. 

-ter,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  p.  155,  foot-note 
1.  Adverbs  in  -ter,  304,  IV.  Nouns 
in -ter,  326;  decl.,  60,  3. 


Terence,  peculiarities  in  versification, 
578,  N.  2;  580,  III.,  notes  3  and  4; 
metres,  633.  III. 

Terminational  compar.,  161  ff. 

Terra,  constr.,  425,  2.  Terrae,  locat., 
p.  229,  foot-note  1. 

Terrester,  decl.,  153,  N.  1, 1). 

Testissum,  constr.,  535, 1.,  3. 

Tete  for  te,  184,  4. 

Tetrameter,  603,  N.  2 ;  dactylic,  616. 

Tetrapody,  597,  N.  4. 

Tetrastich,  606,  N. 

Thebais^  a  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  1. 

Thematic  vowel,  p.  94,  foot-note  1 ; 
251. 

Thesis,  600. 

Thinking,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  534, 1, 
N.  1,  (2);  535,  I.,  1. 

Third  decl.,  55  ff . ;  adjs.,  152  ff. ;  -o 
in,  581,  II.,  2.  Third  conj.,  209; 
210;  227;  228;  269  ff. 

Threatening,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 

-ti,  suffix,  320 ;  p.  157,  foot-notes  7 
and  9. 

-tia,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  1. 

Tibur,  declv  66,  4. 

-ticius,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

-tico,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  8. 

-ticus,  adjs.  in,  330, 1. 

-tie,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  1. 

-tills,  adjs.  in,  333. 

-tim,  adverbs  in,  304,  I.,  1. 

-tima,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9; 
-tima,  p.  157,  foot-note  9. 

TIME,  adverbs  of,  305,  N.  2,  2).  Ace. 
of  time,  379  :  abl.,  429  ;  379,  1. 
Time  denoted  by  preps,  w.  ace., 
379, 1 ;  429,  2 ;  w.  abl.,  429, 1.  Time 
since,  430,  N.  3.  Adjs.  of  time,  443, 
N.  2.  Time  denoted  by  particip., 
549, 1.  See  also  Temporal  clauses. 

Times  or  morae,  597. 

Timed,  constr.,  385,  1;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 3. 

-timo,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9. 

-timus,  a,  um,  suffix,  p.  157,  foot- 
note 9.  Adjs.  in  -timus,  330,  1. 

-tio,  -tion,  -tioni,  suffixes,  p.  158, 
foot-note  1.  Nouns  in  -tio,  326. 

Tis  for  tul,  184,  5. 

Titles,  superlat.  as,  444, 1,  N. 

-tivus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

Tmesis,  636,  V..  3. 

*  To,'  how  translated,  384,  3. 

-to,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-to  for  tor  in  imperat.,  240,  5. 

Tojiitrus,  decl.,  117, 1,  3). 

-tor,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-tor,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1. 
Nouns  in  -tor,  326  ;  as  adjs.,  441,  3. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


423 


•toria,  -torio,  suffixes,  p.  158,  foot- 
note 4.     0  in  toria,  587,  III.,  4. 
torium,  -torius,  o  in,  587,  III.,  4. 

Tot.  demon.,  186.  4;  correlat.,  191. 

Totiens  305,  IV. 

Totus,  demon.,  186,  4. 

Totus,  decl.,  151, 1 ;  w.  loc.  abl.,  425, 

.  2.     Totus  for  Eng.  adverb,  443,  N. 

1,  (2). 
!TOWNS,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  II.,  2 ; 

constr.,    428 ;    whither,    380,    II. ; 

whence,  412,  II. ;  where,  425,  II. 
-tra,  suffix,  320,  I. 
Trador,  constr.,  534, 1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Trans  in  compds.,  344,  5;  w.  ace., 

372;  w.  two  aces.,  376.     Trans  w. 

ace.,  433;  433,  I. 
Transitive  verbs,  193, 1. 
Translation  of  subjunctive,  196.  II. ; 

infin.,  200, 1. 
Trees,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  II.,  2; 

names  of,  in  -us,  decl.,  119,  2. 
Tres,  decl.,  175. 
Tribrach,  597,  II. 
Tribud  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 
Tribus,  decl.,  117,  1,  1);  gend.,  118, 

-trie,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  4. 

Tricolon ,  p.  352,  foot-note  3. 

Trihemimeral  caesura,  p.  356,  foot- 
note 4. 

Trihemimeris,  597,  N.  4. 

Trimeter,  603,  N.  2. 

Tripodv,  597,  N.  4. 

Tristich,  606,  N. 

Tristior,  tristis,  decl.,  154.  Tristis 
w.  force  of  Eng.  adverb,  443,  N.  1, 

Trisyllabic  reduplicated  perfects, 
quant,  of  first  two  syllables,  591. 

-trix,  nouns  in,  326 ;  as  adjs.,  441,  3. 

-tro,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Trochaic  verse,  603,  N.  1 ;  618  if. ; 
stanza,  631,  X. ;  caesura,  p.  356, 
foot-note  4. 

Trochee,  597,  II. ;  irrational,  598, 1, 1). 

Tropes,  637,  V.,  N. 

-trum,  nouns  in,  326. 

Truths,  gen.,  expressed  by  pres.  in- 
die., 467,  II.;  in  condit.,  508,  5; 
511, 1. 

Tt  changed  to  st,  $s,  or  s,  35,  3. 

Tu,  decj.,  184.    /in  tibi,  581,  I.,  2. 

-tu,  jtu,  suffixes,  320. 

-t  u  a ,  -tudon,  suffixes,  p.  158,  foot- 
note 3. 

Tuli,  u  in,  590, 1. 


-turn,  nouns  in,  323. 

Tumultus,  decl.,  119,  3.  ' 

Tune,  304. 1.,  4;  305,  IV. 

-tuo,  6umx,p.  158,  foot-note  1. 

-tfir ft,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  4. 
Nouns  in  -tura,  326. 

-turio,  desideratives  in,  338. 

-turo,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  4. 

Turpis  w.  supine,  547,  N.,  1. 

Turris,  decl.,  62. 

-turus.  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1. 

Tus,  defect..  133,  N. 

-tus,  adverbs  in,  304,  IV. ;  nouns  in, 
326  ;  adjs.  in,  328. 

-tus.  nouns  in,  324 ;  325. 

Tussis,  decl.,  62. 

-tut,  -tuti,  suffixes,  p.  158,  foot-note 
3. 

Turn,  possess.,  185. 

Two  aces.,  373  ;  374.  Two  dats.,  390. 
Two  negatives,  553.  Two  copula- 
tives, 554, 1.,  5. 

U 

U,  u,  sound,  5  ;  10  ;  11.  Uw.  sound 
of  w,  5,  4 ;  10,  4,  5).  U  parasitic, 
p.  4,  foot-note  5;  interchanged 
with  v,  29;  dropped,  36,  4.  U- 
nouns,  116.  Nouns  in  u.  defect., 
134.  Sup.  in  u,  545  ;  547.  Z7or  u, 
final,  580, 1. ;  in  increments  of  decl., 
585  ;  585,  V. ;  conj.,  586  ;  586,  IV. 
#as  consonant,  608,  III.,  N.  2. 

-u,  suffix,  320. 

Uoer.  neut.  Dlur.,  158, 1. 

Ubi,  304,  III.,  2 ;  305, 1. ;  p.  151,  foot- 
note 1;  311,  1;  w.  part,  gen.,  p. 
209,  foot-note  .3 ;  in  temp,  clauses, 
518;  471,4.  /in  ubL  581,  I.,  2; 
quant,  of  ult.  in  compds.,  594,  9. 

Umcumque,  ubiubz,  p.  75,  foot-note  3 ; 
305,  N.  1. 

Ubivls,  305, 1. 

-ubus  for  -ibm,  117, 1. 

-uceus,  u  in;  587,  III.,  1. 

-ucus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

-ud§,  &in,  587, 1.,  2. 

-ugo,  nouns  in,  324,  N. ;  u  in,  587, 

Ui,  sound,  12,  2. 

-uis  for  -us,  117,  2. 

-ula,  nouns  in,  321 ;  u  in,  587,  II.,  3. 

-ulentus,  u  in,  587,  IV.,  1. 

-ulis,  £in,  587, 1.,  4. 

fTUus^  decl.,  151, 1 ;  use,  457.. 

Ulterior,    ultimus,    166.      Ultimus^ 

•  force  of,  440,  N.  2 ;  442,  N. 

Ultras,  ace.,  433;  433,1. 

-ulum,  -ulus,  in  nouns,  321;   in 


424: 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


adjs.,  332;  333,  5;  compar.,  169,  3. 
U  in  -ulum,  -ulus,  587,  II.,  3. 

-tun  in  gen.  plur.  of  nouns,  57 ;  p. 
36,  foot-notes  3  and  4 ;  p.  38,  foot- 
note 2;  67;  adjs..  158,  2.  Nouns 
in  -us  and  -um,  neteroclites.  139; 
heterogeneous,  144.  Adverbs  in 
-urn,  304,  I.,  3,  1);  num.,  181,  N. 
2;  superlat.,  306,  6.  Supine  in 
-um,  545;  546;  w.  eo,  546,  2;  w. 
in,  546,  3. 

-um  for  drum,  49,  3 ;  drum,  52,  3. 

-una,  u  in,  587, 1.,  5. 

Uncia,  646, 1,  N. ;  646,  3,  1)— 4). 

Unclothing,  ace.  w.  verbs  of,  377. 

-uncula,  -unculus,  diminutives 
in.  321,  3. 

Unde,  undelibet,  305,  III. 

-undus,  -undi,  for  -endus,  -endi. 
239. 

Unguis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Union,  dat.  w.  verbs  denoting,  385,  4, 
3). 

Unlike,  gen.  w.  adjs.  meaning,  391, 
II.,  4,  (2). 

Unquam,  305,  IV. 

-unt,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Unus,  decl.,  151, 1 ;  175 ;  followed  by 
abl.  w.  prep.,  p.  209,  foot-note  1 ; 
gen.  of,  w.  possess.,  398,  3.  Unus 
w.  force  of  Eng.  adverb,  443,  N.  1, 
(2).  Unus  qul  w.  subj.,  503,  II.,  1. 

-unus,  u  in,  587, 1.,  5. 

Unusquisque,  decl.,  j).  77,  foot-note  1. 

-uo,  suffix,  320,  II.  Denom.  verbs 
in  -uo,  335. 

-ur,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  decl.  of  adjs.  in, 
150,  N. ;  gend.  of  nouns  in,  111 ; 

#Hw,'deel.,  64. 

Urging,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  499,  2. 

-urio,  um,  587,  IV.,  2. 

-us,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  adverbs  in,  304, 
L.  3,  1);  nouns  in,  326,  2;  327. 
Us  for  e  in  voc.,  52,  2.  Decl.  of 
nouns  in  us,  51 ;  85 ;  116 ;  in  us,  84 ; 
quant,  of  increm. ,  585,  V. ,  1.  Decl. 
of  names  of  trees  in  us,  119,  2. 
Neuters  in  us,  Decl.  II.,  51.  7. 
Gend.  of  nouns  in  us,  us,  Decl.  III., 
Ill ;  115.  Nouns  in  us  and  um, 
heteroclites,  139 ;  heterogeneous, 
144;  145.  Compar.  of  adjs.  in  us 
preceded  by  vowel,  169,  2.  Us  or 
us  final,  580,  III.,  w.  N.  2 ;  581,  IX. 

Useful,  dat.  w.  adjs.  signifying,  391, 
I.;  ad,  391,  II.,  1,  (2J. 

Uspiam,  usquam,  305, 1. 

Usque  w.  preps.,  433,  N.  2.  Usque  w. 
ace.,  437, 1. 


Ususw.  abl.,  414,  IV. 

Ut,  uti,  304,  III.,  2  ;  305,  V. ;  311 ;  p. 
151,  foot-note  1.  Ut,  ut  prlmum, 
'  as  soon  as,'  471,  4.  Ut  w.  subj. 
of  desire,  483, 1 ;  w.  subj.  in  ques- 
tions, 486,  IL,  N. ;  w.  subj.  of  pur- 
pose, 497,  II.  ;  after  verbs  of  fear- 
ing, 498,  III.,  N.  1.  Ut  ne,  ut  non, 
for  ne,  499,  1.  Ut  omitted,  499,  2; 
502, 1.  Ut  w.  subj.  of  result,  500, 
II.  Ut  si  w.  subj.  in  condit.,  513, 
II.  #2inconcess.,515,III.  Ut— sic, 
ut — ita,  involving  concess.,  515,  N. 
5.  Ut—ita  w.  superlat.,  555,  II.,  1. 
Ut  w.  relat.,  517,  3, 1).  Ut  in  temp, 
clauses,  518.  Ut  quisque—4ta,  458, 
2.  Quant,  of  ult.  of  uti  in  compds.. 
594.  9. 

-ut,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  78. 

Uter,  decl.,  65, 1,  2). 

Uter,  decl.,  151, 1 ;  correlat.,  191. 

Utercunque,  uterlibet,  uterque,  utervis, 
decl.,  151,  N.  2.  Uterque,  constr., 
397,  N.  2;  meaning  and  use,  459, 
4;  w.  plur.  verb,  461,  3.  Is  in 
utervis,  581,  VIII.,  3,  N. 

Uti,  see  Ut. 

-utiin,  urn,  587, 1.,  7. 

Utinam  w.  subj.  of  desire,  483, 1. 

Utor,  constr.,  421,  I. ;  421,  N.  4;  ge- 
rundive, 544,  2,  N.  5. 

Utpote.  311,  7:  w.  relat.,  517,  3,  1). 

ffirinde,  304,  III.,  N. 

Utrum,  310,  2,  N. ;  311,  8 ;  353. 

-utus,  u  in,  587, 1..  7. 

Uu  avoided,  p.  15,  root-note  1. 

-uus,  adis.  in,  333,  5. 

-ux,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  97 ;  -ux,  97, 

V 

V  originally  not  distinguished  from 
u,  2,  5.  Sound  of  v,  7.  V  inter- 
changed w.  u,  29  ;  treated  as  guttu- 
ral, 30,  N.  1 ;  changed  to  c,  33, 1, 
N. ;  dropped,  36,  4. 

-va,  suffix,  320, 1. 

Vacuus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Vae,  312,  3  ;  w.  dat.,  381,  N.  3,  3). 

Vah,  interj.,  312, 1. 

Valae  qudm  in  adverb,  phrase,  305, 
N.  4. 

Value,  gen.  of,  404.  Gen.  w.  verbs  of 
valuing,  404. 

Vannus,  gend.,  53,  1,  (2). 

Variable  rad.  vowel,  20,  N.  2;  57,  2; 
58, 1,  2) ;  60, 1,  2) ;  61,  1,  2). 

Variation  in  quant,  of  stem-syllables, 
593, 1. 

Varieties  of  verse,  609. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


425 


Yds,  decl.,  136,  2. 

Vas,  a  in,  579,  3;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  I.,  4,  (2). 

Vdtes,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Ve,  insep.  prep.,  308 :  e  in,  594,  2. 

Ve,  fl<?Z,  310,  2  ;  554,  II.,  2.  pfc-^d, 
554,  II.,  IN.  Position  of  t'0Z  in  po- 
etry, 569,  III.,  N. ;  in  prose,  569, 

Velui]  311,  2 ;  554,  II.,  2.  Velut,  ve- 
lut  si,  in  condit.,  513,  II. 

Vendlis  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Venit  in  mentem  w.  gen.,  406,  N. 

Venter,  decl.,  65, 1,  2). 

F£r  without  plur.,  130, 1,  4) ;  quant, 
of  increm.,  585,  III..  3. 

Verb  stems,  format,  of,  249  ff. 

Verbal  endings,  analysis  of,  241  ff. 
Verbal  roots,  314, 1.  Verbal  nouns 
in  u  defect.,  134.  Verbal  nouns  w. 
infin.  .533,  3,  N.  3. 

VERBS,  ETYMOLOGY  OF,  192 ff.;  classes, 
193;  voice,  mood,  tense,  numb., 
j>ers.,  194  n. ;  infin.,  ger.,  sup.,  par- 
ticip.,  200;  conj.,  201  ff. ;  prin. 
parts,  202 ;  paradigms,  204  ff. ;  com- 
I>arat.  view,  213  ff. ;  verbal  inflec- 
tions, 220  ff. ;  systems,  222 ;  synop- 
sis, 223  ff. ;  dep.  verbs,  231  fl\ ; 
periphrast.  conj.,  233  ff. ;  peculiari- 
ties in  conj.,  235  ff.  ;  analysis  of 
verbal  endings,  241  ff.  ;  tense-signs, 
242  ff. ;  mood-signs,  244  ff. ;  pers. 
endings,  247  ff. ;  format,  of  stems, 
249  ff. ;  pres.  stem,  250  ;  251 ;  perf. 
stem,  252  ff. ;  sup.  stem,  256 ;  clas- 
sification, 257  ff. ;  Conj.  1.,  257  ff. ; 
Coni.  II.,  261  ff  •  Conj.  III.,  269  ff. ; 
Conj.  IV.,  284  ff. ;  irreg.  verbs,  289 
ff. ;  defect.,  297  ff. ;  impers.,  298  ff. ; 
derivation,  335  ff. ;  d!enom.,  335 ; 
frequent.,  336;  incept.,  337;  desid- 
erat.,  338;  dimin.,  339;  compds., 
344. 

VERBS,  SYNTAX  or,  460  ff. ;  agree- 
ment, 460  ff.  Verb  omitted,  368, 
3;  523,  I.,  N.  Voices,  464;  465. 
Indie,  and  tenses,  466  ff.  Subj.  and 
tenses,  477  ff. ;  subj.  in  prin.  clauses, 
483  ff.  Imperat.  and  tenses,  487  ff. 
Subord.  clauses,  490  ff.  ;  seq.  of 
tenses,  490  ff.  Purpose,  497  ff. ;  re- 
sult, 500  ff. ;  condit.  sentences,  506 
ff. ;  concess.  clauses,  515 ;  causal 
clauses.  516 ;  517 ;  temp,  clauses, 
518  ff. ;  indir.  disc.,  522  ff. ;  indir. 
clauses,  528  ff.  Infin.,  532  ff.  Sub- 
stant.  clauses,  540.  Ger.,  541 ;  542. 
Gerundive,  543 ;  544.  Supines,  545 
ff.  Particip.,  548  ff.  Position  of 


modifiers  of  verb,  567.  -O.  o,  in 
verbs,  581,  II.,  2 ;  -d,  581,  III.,  3. 

Vere,  304,  II.,  2. 

Vereor,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  3. 

Vergil,  versification,  630. 

Vero,  p.  146,  foot-note  1 ;  310,  3 ; 
554,  III.,  2  and  4;  position,  569, 

Verse,  caesura  of,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 

Verses,  601 ;  name,  603  :  varieties,  609. 

VERSIFICATION,  596  ff.  Feet,  597. 
Verses,  601 ;  names  of,  603 ;  604. 
Figures  of  pros.,  608.  Varieties  of 
verse,  609. 

Versus,  p.  145,  foot-note  5;  w.  ace., 
433 ;  as  adverb,  433,  N.  2 ;  position, 
569,  II. 

Verto  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 

Veru,  decl.,  117, 1,  2). 

Verum,  310,  3;  554,  III.,  2;  non 
solum  (non  modo  or  non  tantum) — 
verum  etiam,  554,  I.,  5.  Verum, 
verumtamen,  resumptive,  554,  IV.,  3. 

Verumtamen,  554?  III.,  3. 

Vervex,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

Vescor,  constr.,  421,  I. ;  421,  N.  4. 

Vesper,  decl.,  51,  4.  resper  (for  ves- 
peris),  decl.,  62,  N.  2. 

Vespera  without  plur.,  130,  1,  4). 

Vespertinus,  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  5. 

Vestrds,  decl.,  185,  N.  3. 

Vestri,  vestrum,  446,  N.  3. 

Veto,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1; 
vetor,  534, 1,  N.  1. 

Vetus,  decl.,  158 ;  compar.,  163, 1,  N. ; 
167,  2. 

Vidniae,  locat.,  p.  229,  foot-note  1. 

Vidnus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Vicis,  defect.,  133,1. 

VidLtin,  581,  IV.,  3. 

Videlicet,  304,  IV.,  N.  2. 

Videor,  constr.,  534, 1.  N.  1,  (1). 

Vir,  decl.,  51,  4, 1) ;  *  in,  579,  3. 

Virgo,  decl.,  60. 

Virtus,  decl.,  58. 

Virus,  decl.,  51,  7  ;  gend..  53,  2. 

Vis,  decl.,  66;  p.  38,  foot-note  4; 
quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

Vixdum,  555, 1.,  1. 

-vo,  suffix,  320,  II. 

VOCATIVE,  irreg.,  52,  2 ;  68,  3.  Syn- 
tax, 369.  Voc.  in  exclamat.,  381, 
N.  3, 1).  Position  of  voc.,  569,  VI. 
/in  Greek  voc.  sing.,  581, 1.,  2;  -d 
in,  581,  III.,  2;  -es  in,  581,  VI.,  3; 
-us  in  plur.,  581,  IX.,  2. 

Voices,  195 ;  464 ;  465. 

VolO  w.  eth.  dat.,  389,  N.  2 ;  w.  subj., 

S.  274,  foot-note  1 ;  499,2:  w.  in- 
n.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1.     Votens  w. 


426 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


dat.  of  possess.,  387,  N.  3.  Increm. 
of  wlo  and  compds.,  586, 1. 

Volucer,  decl.,  153,  N.  1, 1). 

Volueris,  p.  36.  foot-note  3. 

-volus,  compos,  in,  342, 1 ;  compar., 
164. 

Votl,  constr.,  410,  III.,  N.  2. 

VOWELS.  3,  I. ;  sounds,  5 ;  9  ff. ;  15, 
1.  Classification  of  vowels,  3,  I. 
Phonet.  changes,  20  ff.  Vowels 
lengthened,  20 ;  shortened,  21  ; 
weakened,  22 ;  contracted,  23 ; 
changed,  24;  assimilated,  25;  dis- 
similated,  26;  dropped,  27;  inter- 
changed with  consonants,  28 ;  29. 
Variable  vowel,  20,  N.  2;  57,  2; 
58,  1,  2);  60  1,  2);  61,  1,  2). 
Favorite  vowels,  24.  Vowels  de- 
veloped by  liquids  or  nasals,  29,  N. 
Order  of  vowels  in  strength,  22. 
Themat.  vowel,  p.  94,  foot-note  1 ; 
251.  Vowel-stems,  compar.  of  adjs. 
in,  162,  N.  Final  vowel  elided, 
608,  I. ;  shortened  in  hiatus,  608, 
II.,  N.  3.  Quant,  before  two  con- 
sonants or  a  double  cons.,  651. 

Vulgus,  decl.,  51,  7 ;  gend.,  53,  2. 

Vulpecula,  p.  159,  foot-note  1. 

-vus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

W 

Want,  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  410.  V.,  1. 
Watches  of  night,  645, 1. 
Way,  adverbs  of,  305,  N.  2,  3). 
Weak  caesura,  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 


Weakening  of  vowels,  22 ;  diphthongs, 
23,  N. 

Weights,  Eoman,  646 ;  648. 

4  Wile,'  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398,  1, 
N.  2. 

Winds,  gend.  of  names  of,  42, 1.,  2. 

Wishing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  535,  II. 

Without,  constr.  w.  verbs  of  being 
without,  414, 1. 

Women,  names  of,  649,  4. 

Words,  formation  of,  313  ff. ;  deriva- 
tion, 321  ff. ;  arrang.,  559  ff. 


X,  sound,  13,  II. ;  dropped,  36,  3,  N. 
2.  Decl.  of  nouns  in  #,  64 ;  65,  3 ; 
91  ff. ;  gend.,  105  ;  108.  X length- 
ens preceding  syllable,  576,  II. 


Y  only  in  foreign  words.  2,  6 ;  sound, 
5,  2 ;  10  ff.  Decl.  or  nouns  in  y, 
73  ;  gend.,  111.  For  y,  final,  580, 
I. ;  in  increments,  585. 

-ys,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  68,  2;  86; 
gend. ,  107.  Ys  final,  580,  III. 

-yx,  -yx,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  97,  N.  2. 


Z  only  in  foreign  words,  2,  6  ;  length- 
ens preceding  syllable,  576,  II. 
Zeugma,  636,  U.,  1. 


TABLE  QF  OLD  AND  NEW  ARTICLES. 


42? 


TABLE 


SHOWING   THE  CORRESPONDING  ARTICLES  IN  THE 
TWO 


OLD. 
1-4  . 

NEW. 
.  .    ..1-4 

OLD. 

198,  1  

NEW. 

....197,  N.  1 

5,  6.  .  . 

9 

198,  2  

198 

7'  

10 

198,  3  

....197,  N.  2 

8  

11 

199  

199 

9  

12 

200  

201 

10-12  

13 

201  

202 

13  

14,  1 

202  

203 

14 

.  ..14,2 

203   

203,  1 

15 

204^212  .  . 

20^-212 

16  

,...6 

213  

220 

17  

7 

214  

221 

18  

8 

215   

222 

19 

15 

216  217,  I. 

223 

20  

16 

217  II..... 

224 

21  

16,  I. 

218,  I  

225 

22  
23  

24    .  . 

16,  II. 
....16,111. 
...17 

218,11  
219,  I  
219  H. 

226 
227 

228 

25. 

.  ..18 

220  -I 

229 

26  

19 

220,  II  

230 

27  

20 

221  

217 

28  

24 

222  

218 

28,  2,  2)  .  . 

25,  1 

223  

219 

29    

.21 

224 

30  

22 

225...  

231 

31  

27 

226  

232 

32  

23 

227-230  

26,  28 

231  

233 

33... 

30 

232  

234 

34  

...36,  5,  1) 

233  

234,  N. 

35  

31,  1 

234  

235 

32,  35 

235  

236 

36  

36,  2 

236  

237 

37-120  

....37-120 

237   

238 

120.  3  

121 

238  .  .  . 

.239 

120.  4  

122 

239 

.240 

121  

123 

240  I 

9,13  9,14. 

122    

.  .47,  note  1 

240,11.  and  III..  215,  216 
241-256  241-256 
257  256.  1 

123  
124-189  

...124^.89 

190  

190,  1 

258,  !.,!..  . 
258,  I.  2  .. 

30  ;  36,  3,  1) 
36,  2 

191  

190,  2 

191 

258  13. 

33,  1 

192-195  

192-195 

258  14  . 

...34..  I.N. 

196,  I   

196 

258  I.  5  36,3,^.3 
258,  II.,  land  2....  33,1 
258  11.  3  34.  N. 

196  II  

200 

197... 

...197 

OLD.  NEW. 

258,  II.,  4 29 

259 257 

260 258 

260,  1  and  2.  .257,  notes 

1  and  2 

261 259,  1 

261  vl  and  2. ..  259,  notes 

1  and  2 

262 259,  2 

263 260 

264 261 

265 262 

266 262,  N.  1 

267 262,  N.  2 

268 263 

269,  1 265 

269,11 264 

270,  1 267,1 

270,  II.,  1 266 

270,11.,  2 267,2 

270,  III 267,  3 

271 268 

272,  1 269 

272,11 270 

273, 1.,  1 271,1 

273, 1.,  2 272,1 

273,  II.,  1 271,2 

273,  II.,  2 272,  2 

273,  III 272,3 

274,275,1 273,274 

275,  II 275 

276 276 

276,1 277,  N. 

277-279 277-279 

280 272,  N.I 

281 272,  N.  2 

282 280 

282,  1 281 

282,11 282 

283-285 283-285 

286,  1 286 

286,11 287 

287 287,  N. 

288-303 288-303 

304 805,  N.  2 

305 306 

306 807 


428 


TABLE  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  ARTICLES. 


OLD. 

807  

NEW. 

308 

OLD. 

364,  365... 

NEW. 

365 

OLD.                                          NEW. 

419  II  425   1,  N 

308,  309  

..     ..309 

366. 

419    TTT     4-21     TT  •    414 

310-312 

.310-312 

366    367 

I  and  III 

313,  I  

313 

367,  368... 

368 

419,  IV.  .421,  III.  ;  425, 

313,11  

340 

369-371  .  .  . 

369-371 

313,  1  

.313,  N.  2 

371    4  

372 

419,  V..           .  414,  'iV. 

..314-320 

371,  5  ..   . 

371    IV. 

419,  2    421  ,  notes  1  and  2 

314,  315  

321 

371,  6 

464 

419,  3         414,  notes  2-4 

316  

322 

371    7 

371  I     N 

419  4  1)           421   N  4 

317             .   . 

323 

372 

419  4  3)            421   N  3 

318  

324 

373,  374... 

373  374 

420  367;  411 

319  

325 

374,  4 

534 

421    425,  1.  and  II.  ;  412 

320,  321  

..326,  327 

374,  5 

375 

422                425,  1  and  2 

322,  323  

328 

374,  6... 

376 

422,  2  412,  2 

324  

329 

374,  7  

377 

423  425,  3 

325  

330 

375 

536 

423,  1  412,  3 

326  

331 

376. 

424                                426 

327  
328  

332 
333 

377  
378  

370,  II. 
379 

—  427,  428 
425  413-415 

329  

334 

379  

380 

426       429 

330,  331  

335 

380.   .. 

;     .  .378 

427       430 

332.  I  

336 

381 

.381 

428          419,  II  ;  419,  2 

332  II  

337 

382,  383 

382   383 

429                              .424 

332,  HI  

..      ..338 

384-396 

384-396 

430    431                       431 

332,  IV  

339 

396,  III.  .  . 

397 

432-440  432-440 

333-337  

.304,  305 

397  

398 

441,  1  and  2  441 

338,  I.-IIL,  1. 

340 

398,  1 

.396  V.,N.  3 

441,  4      .          440,  N.  4 

338J  2  

..344,  5 

398,  2 

395  N   2 

441   5                 395,  N.  2 

338,  3  

344,  6 

398,  3..  396 

,  II.,  N.;  396, 

441,  6  440  notes  1-3 

339  

341 

III.,  N.  2 

442-463  442-463 

339,  1  

.  .  .343,  II. 

398,  4    39C 

,  III.,  N.  1: 

464  195 

339,  2  

341   1 

397,  N.  3 

465-465,  II.  .       .         464 

340     

.  342 

398  5 

384,  4,  N.  2 

465,  1-3                       465 

341  

..344,  1-4 

399,  1-4.. 

.........399 

466-474  466-474 

342  

..304,  305 

399,  5  ... 

400 

—  475 

343  

..345 

400 

475  476 

344.     .     .  . 

346 

401   402 

401,  402 

476            478 

345,  I 

347 

402  1  and 

2        404,405 

477                      479,  480 

345,  II  

348 

402,  3  

401,  N.  4 

478  481,  482 

345,  TTT  

349 

403     

403 

479  496 

346,  I  

350 

404,  1  . 

401,  N.  3 

480  490,  491 

346,  II.,  1  

351 

405.     

481,  I     492 

346.  II    2.  . 

...  353 

406-408  .. 

...406-408 

481,11.                        .493 

346,  II.,  3.... 

352 

409  

410,  V. 

481,111  494 

346,  III  

354 

410-410,  2 

409 

481,  III.,  1  and  2  496 

346,  IV.  .  . 

355 

410,  3-7.. 

410 

481,  IV  495,11. 

347  

356 

411,  1  

397  4 

481.  V  495,111. 

348  .    . 

357 

411,  2  

398,5 

481,  VI  495,  IV. 

349 

357    i 

412,  413 

367  ;  411 

482  495,1  ,VI.,andVH. 

350 

.357,  2 

414-114,  2 

413  •  416 

483,  484      .    ...        477 

351 

.358 

414  3 

419,  III 

485   486                485,  486 

352  

359 

414,  4  

418;  420 

486,  4  and  6.  .485,  notes 

OKO 

360 

414,  5  and 

6  415,  I. 

486,  5  518,  1 

354  

361,  1 

414,7..  418 

;  419,  1.:  419,1 

487,  488  483,  484 

355  

361    2 

415. 

488,  1-5  483,  1-5 

356  

361,  3 

416 

422 

489       497  ;  500 

357-361  

417  

417 

490  497,  1;  500 

362,  363 

362,  363 

418 

.  423 

491           497,  1 

363,  4... 

...364 

419,1.. 

...421,1. 

492,493  498,499 

TABLE  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  ARTICLES. 


429 


OLD. 

493  4  

NEW. 

483,  3,  N. 

OLD.                 NEW. 

552,  3  and  4  533,  II. 

OLD. 

607. 

NEW. 

574 

494 

500 

553  I  -IV        539 

608. 

575 

495 

.501 

553,  V  533,  II. 

609. 

.  .  .  575,  foot-note  1 

495  22)   4 

86  II  ,  N. 

554  540 

610. 

576,  1. 

496  

502 

555  540,  I. 

611. 

576,11. 

497 

497  2 

556  I   538  1-  540,  N. 

611, 

2  578 

498 

504 

556  I  land  2  501,  1.,  2 

612 

577 

499 

497  2 

556  II  and  III  501  I  ,  1 

613 

.579 

500 

.  497  ;  500 

557  540,  I. 

614. 

580,  I. 

500,  3 

503  N  3 

558,  I.,  1      535,  I. 

615. 

581,  III. 

501  

503 

558,  L,  2  498,1. 

616. 

581,  IV. 

505 

558,  II.,  1  533,  L,  1 

617. 

580,  I. 

502  

.506 

558,11..  2....  498,  L,  N. 

618. 

581,  I. 

503,  I.  and  II 

513 

558,  III  498.11. 

619. 

580,  I. 

503,  III. 

507 

558,  IV     .501,  II.,  1 

620. 

581,11. 

504 

509  510 

558  V       535  III 

621. 

580,11. 

505 

513  I 

558  VI        498,  I. 

622. 

580,  III. 

506 

513  II 

558,  VI  2  and  3  .535  II 

623. 

..581,  V. 

507-510 

507-510 

559             541 

624 

581,  VI. 

510,  2  

...511.  2 

560,  561  542 

625. 

581,  VII. 

511-511,  2  . 

.  ..  511 

562  543,  544 

626. 

581,  VIII. 

511,  3 

..  512 

563  542.1.  ;  544,1 

627. 

581,  IX. 

512  

511 

564  542,11.;  544,  2 

628. 

...580,  III.;  576,  1. 

513 

507  2 

565  542,  III  ;  544,  notes 

629 

582 

514 

514 

2  and  5 

630 

.583 

515,  516  

515 

566  542,  IV.  ;  544,  2 

631. 

584 

517  I  . 

.  .  517 

567  568  545 

632. 

585 

517,  II. 

516 

569     546 

633. 

585,  I. 

518,  I    517 

•  515  III 

570           .  .547 

634 

585,  II. 

518  II 

521 

571-574         .550 

635 

...585,111. 

519  

517 

575  548 

636. 

585,  IV. 

520  

516 

576-578  549 

637. 

585,  V. 

521,'  I 

519,  2 

579  549  5 

638. 

585 

521  II 

520 

580  549,  N.  2 

639 

586 

522 

.519 

581  549  N.  1 

640 

586.1. 

523 

.520 

582,  583         551 

641 

586,11. 

524  

.528,  2,  N. 

584  552 

642. 

...586 

525  526  

......529 

585  553 

643. 

...586,111. 

527  52 

3  :  529,  II. 

586  553,  N. 

644. 

586,  IV. 

528   

....  .522 

587  554 

645. 

587,  1. 

529  530 

523 

588    555 

646 

587,11. 

531  532 

524  525 

589             556 

647 

587,111. 

532  2  and  3 

527 

590            ..557 

648 

587,  IV. 

532,  4  

525,  2 

591  558 

588,  589 

533 

526'  530 

592             559 

649 

595 

534-537 

487  *  489 

593             560 

650 

592 

538  1 

488 

594             561 

651 

590 

538  2 

489  1} 

595             562 

652 

591 

531 

596  563 

653. 

593 

539  

597  564 

654. 

594 

540-544  

537 

598  .565 

655. 

596 

545-547  

536 

599   566 

656. 

597 

548  

532 

600  567 

657, 

658  598 

549-549,  3... 

538 

601    568 

659. 

599 

549  4  

534  1 

602      569 

660. 

600 

550  

...533-535 

603     571 

661. 

601 

551  

535 

604  572 

662. 

602 

552  1  

....533,  I. 

605    573 

663. 

603 

552,  2... 

..534 

606...         ...570 

664. 

...604 

430 


TABLE  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  ARTICLES. 


OLD. 

665  

NEW. 

605 

OLD. 

681  

NEW. 

619 

OLD. 

703  

NEW. 

635 

666  

606 

682  

621 

704  

636 

667 

...601,  N.  3 

683  

622 

705  

637 

668  

607,  N. 

684  

623 

...638,  639 

669  

608 

685  

624 

706... 

640 

670  . 

609 

686  

625 

707  

641 

671 

610 

687  

626 

708  

642 

672 

.610,  1-3 

688.  689.. 

..628,  II.-V. 

709  

643 

673  

611 

690...  628, 

VI.  and  VII. 

710  

644 

674  

611,  4  and  5 

691  

627,  628 

711  

645 

612 

691,  V  

629.  I. 

712  

646 

675 

.  .613 

692  

628,  IX. 

713.  . 

647 

676  

614 

693  

....631,  XV. 

714  

648,  I. 

676,  2 

615 

694  

...631,  XIV. 

715  

....648,  II. 

677  I 

616 

695  

629,11. 

716  

.  648  III. 

677  II 

617 

696-699.  .  . 

630 

717 

.  648  IV 

677,  111  . 

628,  I. 

700  

631 

718  

648,  V. 

678 

.633,  II.,  note  3 

701  

632 

719  

649,  1 

679 

618 

633 

720 

650 

680... 

...620 

702... 

...634 

...651 

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ChampUn,  J.  T.    Short  and  Comprehensive  Greek  Grammar.    12mo. 

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Greek  Ollendorff.    See  KENDRICK. 
Greek  Reader.    See  ARNOLD,  HARKNESS,  and  OWEN. 
Greek  Testament.    Bee  HAHN. 

Hackett,  H.  B.,  and  Tyler,  W.  S.    Plutarch  on  the  Delay  of  the  Deity  in  Pun- 
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Hadiey,  James.    Greek  Grammar. 

Elements  of  Greek  Grammar. 

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Halm,  Augustus.    Novum  Testamentum  Graece.    Notes  by  ROBINSON.    12mo. 

Harkn  SS,  Albert.  Firsjfc  Greek  Book.  With  Reader,  Notes,  and  Vocabulary. 
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Homer.    See  JOHNSON,  H.  C.,  and  OWEN. 

Iliad.    See  JOHNSON,  H.  C ,  and  OWEN. 

Johnson,  Henry  C.    Homer's  Iliad.    First  Three  Books.    Notes  and  References. 

Jo  inson,  Herman  M.    Herodoti  Orientalia  Antiquiora.    Revised  edition.    12mo. 

Xendrick,  Asahel  C.    Greek  Ollendorff.    I2mo. 

Xuhner,  Raphael.  Greek  Grammar.  Translated  by  EDWARDS  and  TAYLOR.  Re- 
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Memorabilia  of  Xenophon.    See  ROBBINS. 

Odyssey.    See  OWEN. 

CEdipus  Tyrannus.    See  CROSBY,  H. 

Ollendorff,  Greek.    See  KENDRICK. 

Owen,  John  L.    Acts  of  the  Apostles,  in  Greek.    With  Lexicon..  12mo. 

Anabasis  of  Xenophon.     With  Notes  and  References  to  Crosby's,  Hadley's, 

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<er   "William  B.    Progressive  Lessons  in  Greek.    With  Notes  and  References 

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